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y^
i
COLLECTION OF
>y
LUT, Col. Francis Hunter Hardie ^^
UNITED STATES ARMY
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A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY
S.Ji
A Sketch
OF
Chinese History
BY
Rev. F. L. HAWKS POTT, D.D.
President of St. John's College, Shanghai.
Author o/"The Ootbreak in China."
aHANQHAI — HONGKONQ— YOKOHAMA — SINGAPOBl !
KELLY & WALSH, LIMITED.
1903.
THE NtW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY
499790
/^aron, utNox AND
TILOtN FOUNDaT!ON8.
• • • •
• • ••
• • •
••• •
THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED
TO
J. F. SEAMAN, ESQ.,
\
rV AN AMERICAN MEECHANT IN CHINA FOB FORTY-TWO YEARS AND ONE OF
^; THK U.S. COMMISSIONERS FOR THE REVISION OF THE COMMERCIAL TREATY
^ WITH CHINA, AS A TOKEN OF THE AUTHOR'S SINCERE REGARD FOR ONE
^ "WHO IN PRIVATE CHARACTER AND IN PUBLIC LIFE EXHIBITS THE BEST
A TRAITS OF THE AMERICAN GENTLEMAN AND PUBLIC SPIRITED CITIZEN.
PREFACE.
^INCE the outbreak of 1900, so many books have been
written about China that it would seem as if there
ought to be some explanation on the part of one
who ventures to add to their number.
The present volume is written to meet a practical need. The
author has long felt in his work as a teacher the want of a short
history of China. Of larger histories, and of monographs treating
fully of some one period, there is no lack, but a concise outline of
Chinese history accenting the turning points in the life of the
nation has not yet been produced.
To reduce the voluminous native histories of China to a small
compass is undoubtedly an ambitious undertaking, but yet it is a
task that someone must attempt. The average student has not the
time nor the inclination to wade through the cumbrous volumes
which exist at present, and when he ventures to do so, he often
becomes discouraged because of the impossibility of remembering
the strange and difficult names of the persons and places with
which the pages are crowded, and so perhaps lays down the book
without having gained any very clear impression of the history
as a whole.
It is hoped that this brief survey of the entire field may be
of service in making it easier for the reader to fix in his mind the
salient points of the long story.
In the spelling of the names of persons and places- we have
followed as far as possible one system throughout, namely, that of
Professor Giles of Cambridge University.
A word may be said as to the attitude of the writer. It is
difficult to write history without bias, and the author does not claim
wholly to have escaped this danger, but at the same time he can
t
Vm PRIFACK.
honestly say that he has tried to be fair, and to regard his subject
as well from the point of view of the Chinese as that of the
foreigner. It seems tp^ him that many otherwise excellent books
concerning China are vitiated by the fact that their authors could
only see one side of a question.
If the West is ever to understand the East, something mora is
necessary than the mere reading of descriptive books of the
Empire, written by travellers and journalists. To understand a
people one must have some knowledge of their history.
This humble contribution to the history of China is offered to
the public in the hope that it may prove useful as a text book in
schools, and may be of some value in acquainting the people of the
West with the people of China.
The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the
Rev. C. F. McBae, B.D., for his valuable assistance in reading
the proofs and compiling the index. His advice on many points
has helped to render the book niore accurate and perspicuous.
CONTENTS.
ChaftSB I. Introduction
PAQE
1
DIVISION I.
The Conquest of China b^ tM Chinese
1CB.C. 2882-206);
Cil{»TBB II. The Mythical and Legendary Periods (B.C. 2852-1766) ...
Chapter 111. Epoch of the Development of Tribal Chieftains into
Emperors (B.C. 1766-1122)
Chaptbe it. The Feudal Period (6.C. 1122-255)
ChapteS V. The Period of Centralization (B.C. 221-206)
18
23
30
DIVISION II.
The First 8trug;g;ie with the Tartars
(B.b. 20(B-A.b. 689).
Chaptbb VI. The Han Dynasty, also styled the Former or Western
Han (B.C. 206— A.D. 23) 84
Chaptbb VII. The Later or Eastern Han Dynasty (A.D. 26-220) ... 41
Chapteb VIII. The Period of Disunion at the Close of the Han
Dynasty (A.D. 214-223) 46
Chapteb IX. Division of the Bmpire between the Tartars in the
North and the Chinese in the South (A.D. 223-589) 50
DIVISION III.
The Second Strug;g;le with the Tartars
(A.D. 689-1644).
Chapteb X. The Period of Reconsolidation (A.D. 589-907)
Chapteb XI. The Epoch of the Five Dynasties (A.D. 907-960)
Chapteb XII. The Division of the Smpire between the Kins (Tartars)
in the North and the Bungs (Chinese) in the South
(A,D. 960-1280)
57
68
71
C01VTBNT8.
Chapter XIII.
Chapter XIV.
Chapter XV.
Chapter XVI.
Chapter XVII.
Chapter XVIII.
Chapter XIX.
Chapter XX.
Chapter XXI.
Chapter XXII.
Chapter XXIII.
Chapter XXIV.
Chapter XXV.
PAGB
The Yuan Dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368) 84
China under the Chinese. Restoration of a Chinese
Dynasty, The Ming (A.D. 1368-1644) 91
The Period of the Manchu Conquest (A.D. 1644-1662) 102
The Consolidation of the Manchu Empire under
K'ang Hsi (A.D. 1662-1723) 106
Attempts on the part of Western Powers to open
Diplomatic and Commercial Relations with China 114
The First "WUr between China and Great Britain
(A.D. 1840-1843) 125
The First Stage of the T*ai-ping Rebellion (A.D.
1860-1860) 138
The Second War between China and Great Britain
(A.D. 1866-1860) 143
The Second Stage of the T*ai-ping Rebellion (A.D.
1860-1864) 158
Important Events succeeding the Suppression of the
Rebellion (A.D. 1867-1882) 166
The War with France and succeeding Events (A.D.
1884-1894) 178
TheWar with Japan (A.D. 1894-1895) 184
Recent Events in China (A.D. 1895 ) 191
k
INDEX,
/
PAGE
borigin^s 2^12,118
Akuta 75
A.lcock, Consul 137
America, United States of 135, 149, 151,
152, 159, 167, 174, 198, 200, 201, 203
Amhers^, Lord
Amursana
Ajicestral worship
Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Annam
Anta
Apaoki
Architecture
" Arrow," The Lorcha ...
Arrow War
Astronon^iqal kno^l^dge
Audiences, Imperial ...
...123, 124i
... 116
... 14,111
... 205
85, 178, 179
96
76
2
144
... 143-167
11,98,108
107,11.2,114,
121, 123, 124, 162, 169, 182, 203
Baf^hkis
Black Crows
Black Flags
Blagovestchensk, Massacre o£
Board of Admiralty
Board of Foreign Affairs 157,
Board of. Punishments
Bogwe Fqrts ...
Bourlxwloa, Mini^r
BoKTiDg, Sir John
Bo^rs
Bremer, Sir Gprdon.
Brooks, Bey. S. M.
117
6(}
.179, 180
204
181
199,200,
203
71
120, 132, 136, 146
157
143, 146
19^-204
130, 131
197
Browne, Col 171
Bruce, Sir Frederick 150,157
Buddhism 38, 42, 63, 65, 60, 84, 88, 92
Burgevine 159,161,163
Burlinghame, Hon. Anson ... 1,67
Burmah ... 48, 86, 92, 103, 117, 118, 171
B,U2urg Ehaif 166
Cambodia 85
Canton ... 120, 121, 125, 126, 12«, 130,
132, 133-136, 143, 146, 1^7, 16.0
Cathagans 35
Calihay 64
Celestial Decrees 141
Chaffee, Gen 201
haldeans 2
Chang, PeaQQ Commissioner ... 188
Chang Chih-tung 202
Chang Fei 47
Chang Hsien-chung ... ... 100
Chang-Hia-wan, Battle of ... 155
Chang Kuang 116
Chang £,uo-liang 163
Chang;-mao 140
Chang Wang 103
Chap Hsiang Wang 30
Chao K*uang-yin 70, 71
Chao-yuan, 72
ChefoQ ConvQutiop ... ... 17^
Cheng-tp'6 ... 41
ChiaCh'ing 122
Chieh ... 16,17
China, Napiefi.,Q£ ... 3Q^6^67
/c:
xu
IKDIX.
Ching Chih-Iiang
Ching, Gen
Ching, Prince
Ching Ti
Chou
Chou Dynasty
Chou Dynasty (Later)
Chou Han
Chou Hsin
Christianity (see Missions).
Chuang Li eh Ti
Chuang Tsung
Chu-ko Liang
Chung Tsung
Chung Wang ...
Chun, Prince ...
ChuWen
Chu Tiian-chang
Ch'ao Pao
Ch*en Dynasty ...
Ch'eng Teu
Ch'eng Tflung ...
Ch*6ngWang ...
Ch'en Pa-hsien ...
Ch'ien Lung
Ch'in
Ch'i Dynasty ...
Ch*in Dynasty ...
Ch'ing Dynasty
Ch4n Shih Huang
Ch'ung-hou
Ch'un, Prince ...
Clan system
Cochin China ...
Cohong
PAGE
...103, 104
16S
203
37,56,94
20, 55, 66
... 9, 23
70
183
... 20,21
100
69
47,48
64
168, 159, 163, 164
204
... ... 66, 68
88, 89, 91
43
55
93
87
23, 24
65
115-118, 121, 122
26,30
54
30
98, 101
50
168, 173
170,180
14
178
125
/ommercial relations with the
West 95, 112, 120, 122, 128, 125-130,
132, 134, 186, 148-145, 149,
171,172,178,183,189-191
Commutation of offences ... 24
CompJete Geographical Record
of the Empire ... ... 94
PAGB
Confucianism ... 28,29,31,32,44,61,
72, 84, 111
Confucius 9,28,29
Conquest of China by the Chinese 7
„ „ „ „ „ Kins 76
« » f» » Mongols 80
„ „ „ „ Manchu8l02
Coolie traffic 145
Corea 38, 59, 62, GS, 72, 85, 92, 97, 100,
174-176, 185-187, 189, 192
Coreans 35
Courbet, Admiral 180
Cushing, Hon. Caleb 135
^Customs, Imperial 165, 176, 181, 183, 188
Dalai Lama 119
Dardsha 116
Davis, Sir John ... 136, 143
Dayatsi 116
D'andrad, Fernand Peres, ... 95
Destruction of the Classical
Literature 31
Detring 188
Development of Government
in the Shang Dynasty ... 18
Dictionary, K'ang Hsi's ... Ill
Divination 14
Division of land 13
Dominicans Ill
Drought 18
Dugenne, Col 179
Durgan 101, 102, 104
Dutch 97, 106-109
East India Company ... 120, 125
Educational Mission 184
EducatioD, Western 181, 182, 184, 193,
194, 205
Eleuths 110
Elgin, Lord ... 147-150, 152-154, 156
, Elliott, Capt. Charles 127-133
Elliott, Commodore 147
INDEX.
XUl
PAGE
Elliott, Rear-Admiral George 130, 131
Empress Dowager 157, 169, 170, 182,
193-197, 199,201,205
Encyclopedias, Chinefle ...98,111
England ... 120-137, 142-167, 169, 160,
171, 172,176,180, 183, 186,
192,198,200, 201,204
Ever Victorious Army 160, 161, 165
Examinations for literary
degrees 44, 87, 181, 182, 193, 203, 205
Family
^Famine
Fang Kuo-ch6n
Fa^hiba
Feng Tao
Feudal Period ...
Feudal System ...
Five Dynasties ...
Flint
Foochou
Formosa... 98,106,
Fournier, Capt. ...
Franciscans
France 123,135,147,
168, 174, 178-
Fu Hsi ...
Fuh Wan
Fuyata ...
14
58, 169
87,89
96,97
69
23
13,23
• 68
120
180
109,110,124,167,
169,180,189
179
Ill
148, 161-157, 159,
180, 189, 190, 202
... 7, 10
102,103
91
Galdan 110
Gaselee, Gen 201
Gazette, Peking 66
Genghis Khan 78-80
Geographical configuration ... 8
Germany
olden Age
Golden Horde
Goloyken
Gordon, Gen,
Gordon Hall
189-191, 200-204
10
75
124
... 160-165, 173
199
Grand Canal
Grand Council ..
Grant, Sir Hope
Great Flood
Great Wall
PAGE
86, 95, 134
105
152, 164
11
... 32,96
Greek Dyuasties of Bactria and
Afghanistan 88
Gros, Baron ... 148, 149, 152, 156
Gurkas 119
Hakka 138
Han Dynasty 9, 34
Han Dynasty (Later) 69
Hangchou 158
Hang-fu 163
Hanlin Academy ... 65, 87, 91, 201
Han, Prince of 71
Hart, Sir Robert ... 165, 181
Heavenly King 141
Hindoo Missionaries 38
Ho, Duke 123
Holland, Capt ... 161
Holloway, Col 148
Hong Kong 131, 132, 134-136, 143, 144.
146, 156, 192
Hope, Admiral ..
Hoppo
Ho Ti
Hou Chu
Ho, Viceroy
Hsia Dynasty ...
Hsia, Kingdom of
Hsi and Ho
Hsiang-yang, Siege of
Hsiao Tao
Hsiao Tsung
Hsiao Yen
Hsien FSng
Hsien-pei
Hsien Ti
Hsien Tsung
Hsi Tsung
151, 152, 159, 160
125
42
47, 49, 56
159
... 12, 16
... 72, 78
11
54
54
••• ... 96
54
138, 147, 156, 167
35
44,^6,47
75, 76
66
xir
IKDSX.
Hsiung-nu
Hsiian TsuDg ...
HuaiTl
Huang Ch*ao ...
Huang Ti
Hui
HuiTi
Hui Tsung
Hunan placards
Hung Hsiu-ch'Uan
Hung Wu
Huns
Hwashana
I Ho Chuan
Hi
Hipu
Indian Mutiny
Ismaloff
Italy
Ito, Admiral
I to, Count
I Yin
PAGB
35-36, <(2, 60, 51
65
51
«6
10
86
92
75,76
182
138-141, 158, 160,
161
91
35
H9, 151
196
... 110,166,173
134
147
112
193
189
176
19
Japan ...86, 96, 97, 169, 170, 174-176,
184-190, 200, 201, 206
72,73,87
98,99,107,111,114
89
Jen Tsung
Jesuits ...
Ju Tzu Ying
Kabul Khan
Ealmuch tribe
Kang Yu-wei
KaoTi ...
Kao Tsu
Kao Tsung
Eaehgar
K*ai-feng-fu
K'au^ Hsi
Khalkas
Khigiz ...
78
110
...198,194
34, 36, 54
34, 52, 57, 60
62, 64, 77
79
10
106, 108-112
110
35
Khitans ...
Kiao-chao i
Kideyoshi
Kim Ok Kuin ,
King Lien-shan
Kins
Kishen ...
Ki-ying .*.
KHtai *
Koo-lau-hui
Kowloon
Kowshing, the steamer
Kbxinga
PAOS
35, 64, 68, 69, 71-73, 75
191
96
.. ••• ••• 186
195
74-76, 78, 80, 9S
131,132
..134-136, 138, 148, 149
«4
182
i5e
18»
104, 106, 109
K'ow-tow, Ceremony of the 107, 112,
121, 123, 124, 152
Kuang 58-
Kuang Hsii 170, 181, 182, 193-196, 201,.
205-
Kuang Wu Ti .
Kuan Li-pu
Kuan Ti ...
Kuan Yii
Kublai Khan .
Kuei Wang
lS:u1dja ...
Kung, Princfe .
Kung Ti
Kuo Wei
Kweiliang
Land tenure
Lang, Capt.
Laugfang
Langsou
LaoTzii
Later Chou Dynasty
Later Han Dynasty
Later Liang Dynasty
Later T'ang Dynasty
Later Tsin Dynasty
Lay, H. N.
41
76.
47
47
82,84-87
103, 104
166, 173-
155-167,166, 170.
82
69, 70
149, 151, 153, ISr
21
181
19^
17»
27
70
69
6a
69
69
165
INDEX.
XV
PAGE
Legations, Siege of the lt9-201
Legendary Age of the Five Rulers 9
Liang Dynasty 64
Liao-tung Peninsula ... ... 59, 189
Li Hudg-chang 142, 159, 161, 163-165,
170,172,175,176,179,
180,184,168,189,802,203
Li K'o-yung 66
LingTi 43
Lin T«e-h8ii 128, 129, 131
Li Ping-heng 191
Li Shih-min 61
Li-88u 31
Li T*ai-po *.. 66
Li Tsung 82
Li T8*un-hsu 69
Li Teii-ch'Sng 100,101
Liu Chang 61
Liu Hsiu 40, 41
Liu K*un-i 202
Liu Pang 33
Liu Pei 47
LiuYu 51,52
Liu Yiian " 61
Livadia, Treaty of 173
Li Yuan 60
Loch 154-156
Lolos 3
Loochoo Islands ... iOO, 170
Lorcha " Arrow '* 144
Lu-chih 3t)
Lu, State of 28
Macao ... 96,114,120,121,123,126,
127, 129, 132, 146, 196
Macartney, Lord ... 121,122
Madagascar 80
Manchuria 98, 187, 190, 192, 199, 205
Jtfanchurian Convention ... 205
Manchus ... 35, 98-104, 139, 196
/Ml
Mao-tun
3B
Marco Polo
Margary
Martineau
McCalla, Capt. ...
Mencius
Mesopotamia
Miaotsz
Mienning
Mildenhall, John
Ming Dynasty ...
Ming Ti
PAGE
86
171
148
198
... 9, 29
3a
... 3,118
122
120
89
... 42,48
Missions, Christian 66, 80, 98, 107, 111,
114, 137, 141, 147, 149, 156, 157, 167-
169, 174, 178, 183, 185, 191, 196, 199,
204
Mohammedanism ... 80, 84, 166
Mongols ... 35, 76, 78-80, 82-89, 93,
94,96,109,110,116
Montauban, General 162
Mu, Emperor 24
Mu Wang 163
Mythological Age 7
Myths in regard to Creation ... 7
Myths in regard to origin of
dwellings and fire S
Nanking 61, 75, 76, 89, 91, 103, 140,
141,158-160.164
Kanking, Treaty of ... 134, 135, i43,
144, 149
Nan Wang 26
Napier, Lord 125,126
Nerchinsk, Treaty of ... 110, 114
Nestorians 66, 67
Nikan 98
Ningpo 95, 96, 103, 114, 120, 131, 133,
134
Niuche 98,99
Northern Squadron ... 181, 187
Nii-chen Tartars 75
Nurhachu 98, 9»
XVI
INDEX.
PAGE
Op:otai 80
Opium ... 127-130,134,146,150,172
Opium War 130
Origin of the Chinese Race ... 2
Osborn, Capt. Shererd ... 165
Ouigars 36,65,66
Oyama, General 187
Page, Admiral 152
Palichiao, Battle of 155
Palmerston, Lord 136
Pao-Psii 25, 26
Parker, Vice- Admiral ... 133
Parkes, Sir Harry ... 143-146, 148,
164-156
Parthia 38
Patenotre 180
P'an Keng 19
FanKu 7
P'ao-ting.fu 197,199
Peace Protocol 203, 205
Peach -garden oath 47
Peculiar features of Chinese history 1
Pei-yang Squadron 187
Peking ... 51,89,93,100,106,121,
123,149,152,155,157,197,
198, 200-202, 205
Peking, Relief of 201
Peking, Supplementary Treaty of 189
Peking, Treaty of ... 156, 167
Perestrato, Raphael 95
Persia 86
Pescadores ... 97, 104, 109, 180, 189
Peter the Great 112
Philippine Islands 97
Pikwei 148/'
PingTi 83
Ping-yang, Battle of 187
Fing Hsiu-Chi 96
P'ingTi 39
P'ingWang 26
,/^
^y^efoTin movement
Religion of China
PAGE
Port Arthur 184,188-191
Port Arthur, Battle of ... 187
Port Hamilton 17G
Portuguese 95, 99, 114, 120, 129,
145, 195
Pottinger, Sir Henry ... 133-136
Printing 69
Pu Chun 195, 196
d Eye-brows
... 39,41
193
14
Ricci, Matteo 98
Riots, Anti-foreign 135-137, 146, 167,
168,171,182,197,199
Roger, Michal 98
Roman Empire 38, 48
Russia 79, 80, 106, 107, 110, 112, 114,
116, 117, 124, 149, 151, 166, 173,
176, 189-192, 201, 202, 204, 206
Sacred Edict
Saishangah
Sankolinsin
Sanm§n Bay
Schaal, Adam ...
Secret Societies
Seymour, Admiral
Seymour, Sir Micliael
Shang Dynasty
112
139
141,153,155
193
107
... 87, 122
198
146, 147
18
Shanghai 96, 103, 133, 134, 136, 137,
150,151,159, 160,195
Shang Ti Hul 139
Shans 3
>*having the head. Custom of 99, 103,
140
ShSn Nung 10
Sh^nTsung 73,96
Shih Huang Ti 30-33
Shih K*o.fa 102-103
Shlh Kung-t'ang ... ... 69
•INDEX.
xvu
PAGE
Shih-pi ... • ' 60
ShihTsu 84
Shih Trtu Chang •. 102
ShihTsung 96
Shimonoseki, Treaty of ... 189
Shu-ching 9,12,13
Shu, Kingdom of 46
Shun 10-12
Shun Chih 102, 104, lOG
ShunTi 88,89
Si-an-fu 201
^Siberian Railway 190
Bladen, Col 171
Soochou ... 96, 158, 159, 163
Sources of historical information 9
Southern Squadron ... 165, 181
Spaniards ... • 97
Ssii-ma Chao 49
Ssii-mal 48
Ssu-ma-kuang 73
Seii-ma Ten ... 49, 50
St. Petersburg, Treaty of ... 173
Sugiyama ... 200
Sui Dynasty 66
SuiJ^n 8
Suleiman, Sultan 166
Summer Palace 156
Sun Chilian 47
Sung Dynasty ... 52, 70, 82
Suta 91
Tahungah * 139
Taipan 125
Tai Shun 100
Taku Forts 149, 151-153, 157, 198, 203
Talienwan 184,192
Taoism 27,53,84
Tao Kuang 124, 138
Tao T6 Ching 27, 84
Tariflf 134, 149, 150, 172, 203
Tartars ... 35,38,42,43,50-63,56,76,
76, 89, 95, 98, 101
Tatnall, Capt. ...
T'aChi
T'ai Chia
T*aiping Rebellion
PAGE
152
20,21
19
138-142,158-166
T'aiTsu 68,71,89,91,92
T'ai Tsung 61, 62, 67, 72, 94, 99, lOU
T*ai Wgn Kun 175
T'ai-yiian-fu 199
T*ang Dynasty (Later) ... 69
T'ang, Men of, 67
T'ang, Prince of 71
T*ang, Prince of.Shang ... 16-19
T*ang Wang 103
Te Kuang 69
Telegraph 181,195
Temur 87
Temuchin 78
^Thibet 119
Three Kingdoms 46
Tientsin ... 120,121,123,141,149,151,
157, 167, 197-200
Tientsin, Convention of 179, 180
Tientsin, Treaty of ... 149-154, 156
Tien Wang ... 141,168,160,164
Ting Admiral 187-189
Toba 62
TobaTao 63
Tong-hak ... 185
Tong King 93, 178-180
Tong King Railway 190
Traitors, The Three Great ... 44
Treaty of Livadia 173
„ „ Nanking 134,135,143,144,
149
„ „ Nerchinsk ... 110,114
„ „ Peking ... 166; 167
„ „ Peking, Supplementary 189
„ „ Shimonoseki ... 189
„ „ St. Petersburg ... 173
„ „ Tientsin ... 149-164,166
Treaty Porta 134, 136, 149, 166, 172, 189
XVlll
INPVX.
PAOB
PAGE
^Veaty with France ...
180
Wang Ch§n
93,94
^Tsai, Princeof I
154, 155, 157
Wang Mang
39, 40
Ts'aoJui
48
Wan Li
96-99
Ts*ao Pei
... 47,48
War, Arrow
14:^
Ts'ao Ti'ao
... 45»47
Ward
169, 160
Ts^ng Kuo-fein 140, 142,
158, 164, 17.3
Ward, Hon. J. E.
151, 152
T8§ng Marquia
173, 179
War, Opium
mo
TsSnning
116
War with France
178
T8*en Yu-ying
171
War with Japan
184
Tsi-an
157
Weddell, Capt, ...
120
Tsiii Dynasty (Eastern)
51
Wei, Gen.
187
Tsin Dynasty (Later) ...
69
Wei-hai-wei
... 184,188,192
Tain Dynasty (Western)
50
Wei-hai-wei, Battle of
18S
T»i Thsi
157
Wei, Kingdom of
46,62-55
Tbo, Gen
187
Wdnsiang
167
Tso T8ung-t*ang
ie7
WSnTi
... 37,63,67,68
Tsung-liYamen 157
199, 200, 203
W^nWaug
20
Tsung Tsg
77
White Lily Society
87, 122
Tuan, Prince
195
Wu Hou
63,64
Tuan Tsung
82
Wu, Kingdom of
46
Tu Fu
66
Wa San-kuei ...
100, 101, 108, 109
Tung Cho
... 44
Wusieh
168, 183
Tungbu
... 35,43
WuBueh ,
183
Tunguses
36
WuTi 37
, 38, 50, 62, 64, 65
ytTurcomans ... 57, 59-62. 66, 68
Wu Ting
*.• .•• • .iU
Turfans
63
Wu Tsung
96
Turguts
116,117
Wu Wang
31,23
Turkestan
116
Turks
35
Xttvier, St. Francis
98
rung Chill ... Ia7
106,169,170
Yakoob Beg
166
Venice
-Yerbiest
86
Yalu, Battle of the
187
108
Yamagata, Marshal
187
Victoria, Queen
150, 173,199
Y^ang Chien
5(;-58
Vladislavitche, Count ...
114
Y'ang-bsia
12
Von Kettler, Bnron .,.
200, 203
Yang Ti
58-60
Vqu Waldersee, Count
203
Yao
... .., 10,11
Yeh, Gen.
m, 187
Wade, Sir Thomas
154,171,172
Yeh HonaU ...
182
Wai-wu^pu
203
Yeh^hsien
93,94
W^ng An-shih
73
YehMing-i^hen...
... 136,143-148
INDEX.
XIX
PAGE
PAGE
Yellow River 11,88,169
Yuan-ming-yuan Palace ... 156
Yen, Prince of
. 92,93
Yuan Shih-kai
202
Yin Dynasty
18,19
Yuan Ti ...
61
YingTsung
93,94
Yu CVao
8
Yoeh-chi
38
Yu-chien
94
Yu
10,11
Yu Hsien
197, 199
YA
15
Yung-cheng
112,114,115
Yu
25
Yung Le
93
YUan Dynasty
84
Yung Wing, Dr.
184
LIST OP MAPS.
PAGE
1. Map of China at the present time * Frontispieee
2. Map showing the gradual extension of the Bmpire
3. Map of China during the Hsia Dynasty
4. Map of China during the Feudal Period
6. Map of China during the Period of " The Three Kingdoms " ...
12
16
23
46
NOTB, — The Author U indebted to Mr, E, H. Parker for permission to reproduce
his map shoviing the gradual extension of the Empire,
MAP OF
CHINA
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126 190
{ '.-^is NE¥f YOKK i
A SKETCH OF CHmSSE HISTORY.
■^> •»■<>-
CHAPTER L
Introduction.
Peculiar Features of Chinese History.
The History of China is remarkable for many reasons. In
the first place, it is the history of the oldest nation in the world.
Other ancient Empires like Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, which
were once contemporaries of China, came into existence, reached
the zenith of their development, and passed away, while she still
continues to exist.
A second remarkable feature of Chinese history is that it tells
the story of a people who over three thousand years ago attained to
a high degree of civilization, but who since that time have nioved
forward but little. As has often been stated, China furnishes a
striking example of what the scientist calls arrested development.
Up to a certain point progress was made in the art of government,
arts, manufactures, literature, religion, philosophy, and all that is
included in the term civilization, but then there came a period of
stagnation, from which China has never wholly recovered.
A third striking feature is that it is the history of a nation
which up to recent times has been little influenced by the rest of
the world. The Chinese, for ages, owing largely to their isolated
geographical position, were not brought into close relations with
the people of other Continents. As a consequence of this
separation they developed their own peculiar type of civilization,
2
2 A SKEfOH OIT OHIKEBB HI8T0BT.
and the spirit of exclusiveness and contempt for those outside the
Middle Kingdom, as they call their country, became ingrained in
their nature. In modern times wlien they were forced to come
into intercourse with the Countries of Europe these traits of
national character became very manifest.
The Orlfi^ln of the Chinese Race.
The origin of the Chinese Race is shrouded in obscurity.
Some suppose that the ancestors of the Chinese first lived in the
territory south of the Caspian Sea, and migrated eastward some-
where about the twenty-third century B.C. Others assert that
their original home was in Akkadia, on the great Euphrates Plain,
and that they have derived many of the elements of their
civilization from the ancient Chaldseans.
What seems certain is, that they were originally a nomad
people who travelled from the western part of Asia and made a
settlement first of all in what is now the modern Province of
Shensi, in the valley of the Yellow River.
After their migration they soon took up agricultural pursuits
and ceased to be merely a pastoral people. Among the most
primitive characters of the Chinese written language, we find
hieroglyphs which point to the conclusion that they not only
kept * sheep and cattle but were also engaged in tilling the
land.
It is thought by some that Chinese architecture furnishes us
with a proof that the Chinese in ancient times were a nomadic
people. In many ways the construction of a modern Chinese
house bears a strong resemblance to that of a tent, and it is
possible to suppose that the similarity may be accounted for in
this way.
The Aborigines of China.
The Chinese were not the first inhabitants of the country in
which they settled. Upon migrating to the valley of the Yellow
River they found aboriginal tribes, already in possession of the soil,
and obtained the territory from them by conquest. As the Chinese
A SKETCH OF OHINBSE HISTOBT. 3
extended, these native tribes were pressed farther and farther to
the Sontli and West, but were never entirely exterminated. The
modern Lolos, Shans and Miaotsz are the descendants of these
original inhabitants and still have settlements in the islands of
Formosa and Hainan, and in the Provinces of Kueichou,
Ssuch^uan, Yunnan, Kuangtung and Kuangsi.
The Qeofi^raphical Configuration of the Chinese Empire.
We have already referred to the fact that China by its
geographical position is an isolated country. It is bounded on the
Uorth and West by deserts or steppes, beyond which are high
mountain chains; it is bounded on the East and South by the
waters of the Pacific. In shape it is an irregular triangle,
covering 5,000,000 square miles and supporting a total population
of 400,000,000 souls.
If we bisect it by drawing a line from North to South, we
shall find that the western half is for the most part mountainous
and the Eastern half is generally flat. The Eastern half is the
richer and contains three-quarters of the population. With the
exception of Ssuch'uan, the Western half in its present
undeveloped state is comparatively poor.
The country also naturally divides itself into a North and a
South, the Yangtsze River forming the boundary between the two
divisions. As we shall see, the Great River of China has more
than once been the dividing line separating warring Kingdoms and
factions. The characteristics of the people of the North and the
South differ considerably, the inhabitants of the North being
especially noted for their physical strength and those of the South
for their intellectual vigour.
In extending their Empire the Chinese have naturally
chosen the point of least resistance. Their first great historical
advance was up the River Wei into Ssiich'uan. Somewhat later
they passed through the two great lake regions by way of the
Kan River of Kiangsi and the Yiian and Hsiang Rivers of
Hnnan into the region about Canton.
4 A SKBTOH OP OHHraSB HISTORY.
Epochs of Chinese History.
When we study the history of the countries of Europe one of the
principal points of interest is to observe how the form of government,
as it exists at the present day, is the result of a gradual evolution.
We are able to trace the rise and growth of modern political and
social institutions, and to notice the trend toward the establishment
of self-governing states, possessing civil and political freedom.
In the study of Chinese History it is difficult to pursue the same
method. Chinese historians have not written history in the true
sense of the word, but have only left behind them a vast mass of
facts, without attempting to trace the connection between causes
and effects. The most trivial and the most important occurrences
stand side by side on their pages, and the arduous task of sifting
and arranging these data and of tracing the relations between them
remains to be accomplished by some future historian.
Owing to the way in which Chinese History has been written,
some have hastily come to the conclusion that it is lacking
in any real advance, that there has been no change in the political
and social institutions for thousands of years, and that all the
narrator can do is to give a dry account of the lives of the Emperors
of the successive Dynasties — a chronicle rather than a liistory.
A closer study however shows us that Chinese History is not
the vast level plain it is sometimes described, but has its hills and
summits, and that numerous important niovements can be
clearly traced and distirguished.
Chinese History may be divided into four Great Periods,
which are as follows : —
I. — The Conquest of China by the Chinese.
II. — The First Struggle with the Tartars, ending with the
Division of the Empire between the Tartars and the
Chinese.
III. — The Second Struggle with the Tartars, ending in the
conquest of China by the Manchus.
IV. — The Struggle between China and Western Nations,
A SKBTOH OF OHINBSB HISTOBT. 5
These main divisions may be subdivided as follows : —
L— The Conquest of China by the Chinese (B.C. 2852-
A.D. 190).
1.— The Mythical and Legendary Period (B.C.
^1^ 2852-1766).
1^/^"^'^ 2.— The Epoch of the development of Tribal
Chief tains into Emperors (B.C. 1766-1122).
^ 3.— The Feudal Period (B.C. 1122-221).
4. — The Period of centralization, and consolidation
of the Empire by Shih Huang- ti (B.C. 221-206).
II.— The First Struggle with the Tartars (B.C. 206-
A.D. 589).
P 1.— The Han Dynasty (B.C. 206-A.D. 214).
2. — Period of Disunion at the close of the Han
Dynasty (A.D. 214-22&).
3. — The Division of the Empire between the
Tartars* in the North and the Chinese in the
. SoutL(A.D. 223-589).
^
III.— The Second Struggle with the Tartars (A.D. 589-1644).
1. — A period of reconsolidation (A.D. 589-907).
2. — A period of Military Supremacy, when
K/t^ successful generals seized and occupied the
lyy^^' throne (A.D. 907-960).
V / 3. — The Division of the Empire between the Kins
(Tartars) in the North and Sungs (Chinese) in
the South (A.D. 960-1280).
4. — The Mongol Invasion and Conquest of China
(A.D. 1280).
5. — The Rule of the Mongols. The Yiian Dynasty
(A.D. 1280-1368).
6. — The Expulsion of the Mongols and the
Restoration of a Chinese Dynasty, the Ming
(A.D. 1368-1644).
7. — The period of the Manchu Conquest (1644).
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
IV. — The Struggle between China and Western European
Nations (A.D. 1662 ).
1 .— Wars with Great Britain (1840-1861).
2.— War with France (1884).
3. — War with Japan, and subsequent acts of
aggression by Western Powers (1894).
4. — The attempt to drive out Westerners and save
the Empire from disintegration (1900).
A SEBTCH OF CHIKESB HISTORY.
DIVISION L
The Conquest of China by the Chinese
(B.C. 2852-206.)
CHAPTER II.
The Mythical and Legendary Periods
(B.C. 2852-1766).
The Mytholoffieal A^e.
The Chinese, like the people of India, believe that from the
beginning of the world until the present an exceedingly long
period of time has elapsed. From the formation of heaven and
earth to the accession of Fu Hsi (B.C. 2852) at least 500,000
years are supposed to have intervened. In connection with that
vast period there are many myths, a few of which may be
mentioned.
Myths in regard to Creation. l^
JP^anj^nJsJjaaii^toJhiaveb the first living being on the
earth, and to him was committed the tas^~^of moulding the chaos
which produced him, and of chiselling out the earth which was
to contain him. He is represented in pictures as a huge giant
holding in one hand a chisel and in the other a mallet, engaged
in splitting and shaping the rocks. He is believed to have worked
for 18,000 years, and as the result of his toils the heavens and
earth were gradually formed.
There followed him in succession three mythological persons,
called the celestial, the terrestrial, and the human sovereigns.
/
8 A 8K1BTGH OF OHINBSB HISTaRt.
Each of these lived for 18,000 years, and as the result of their
united operations the universe went through a slow process of
transformation until it assumed its present shape.
Myths In regard to the origin of Dwellings and Fire.
Yu Ch'ao, w hich means *' the dweller in a nest," succeeded
the last of the above-mentioned mythological rulers. As his
name suggests, he taught men. how to build houses to dwell in,
for before his time they had lived in the holes of the ground,
the caves of the hills, and among the branches of the trees.
Then followed Sui Jen, which means the " producer of fire."
Like Prometheus in Greek Mythology, he taught men how to
bring fire down from heaven. The method he employed was the
simple one of boring one piece of wood with another until the
friction produced combustion. This discovery is said to have had
a great civilizing influence, for then fire first began to be used in
the preparation of food, which formerly had been eaten raw ; and
men gave up living like the wild beasts of the forest.
To Sui Jen is also ascribed the instructing of men in making
calculations by the primitive method of tying knots on strings at
different intervals.
The value of these Myths.
From the historian's point of view these myths possess
but little value, but still they are interesting because they give
us a glimpse into the working of the human mind and show
us how the Chinese reasoned as to the oriorin of thinors. We
learn that they believed that there was a long period of develop-
ment or evolution before the world attained its present condition,
and also that primitive man was barbarous in his habits, and that
progress in civilization was made slowly and gradually. The
myths are also interesting because they are stories which have
been handed down from the earliest times, and which account
for the operations of nature and the progress made by human
invention by attributing them to the actions of supernatural
beings.
A «KnCH OF OSmti^S HlSTdHT. V
Sourees of Historical Information.
Passing over the period of pure myth we come to the period
of Legendary History. First, however, we must say a few words
as to the sources from which we derive our knowledge of Chinese
History. Reliable Chinese History does not extend further baok
than the middle of the Chou Dynasty (B.C* 722), and the account
of the preceding ages is so mingled with tradition that it is almost
impossible to distinguish with certainty what is authentic and what
is legendary. We owe our scanty knowledge of the 2,000 year»
preceding the Chou Dynasty to the labors of Confucius and
Mencius, who took great pains to collect and hand down to
posterity all they could gather in regard to Chinese antiquity.
Confucius obtained his knowledge of ancient history from the
bamboo slips, upon which were written the earliest historical annals.
In the Shu-chinff, the Ancient Book of History, he has put together
the beginnings of Chinese History. After the time of the Chou
Dynasty we come to more solid ground, for at the beginning of
the Han^ DyT i ni ^f.- y^ (Bifi ^ ^^ the custom originated of employing
Court Chroniclers, whose duty it was to write a daily account of
governmental proceedings. These diaries were kept secret and
stored away in iron chests until the Dynasty which they chronicled
had passed away ; then they were opened and published, and so
form the basis of our knowledge of the events which had transpired
while the Dynasty was in existence.
This custom is still employed and the official archives of
the present Dynasty will not be made public until it has passed
away.
Tho Lo^endary Affo of tho FIvo Rulors.
Legendary History begins with an account of nine rulers,
five of whom were celebrated for illustrious virtue — hence the
title of the Age. These Rulers in some ways were much more
like great Tribal Chieftains than Kings in the true sense of the
word. Each of these five is said to have ruled for a very long
period of time and to have done much for the civilization of the
I
10 A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
people. The first was Fa Hsi (B.C. 2852). He resided in
Honan, near the present Kai-feng-fu, and is said to have taught
the people to fish with nets, to rear domestic animals, and to nse
the lute and lyre ; to have instituted laws of marriage, and to have
invented a system of writing by using pictures as symbols.
Much is attributed to him which was undoubtedly of later
origin, as for instance the highly complicated system of Chinese
written characters. Prftbably at this date the Chinese possessed
nothing except rude hieroglyphics, and the method of writing
used at the present time is the product of the slow development of
ages.
Fu Hsi is generally revered among the Chinese as the founder
of their history.
He was succeeded by Shen Nung (B.C. 2737), who taught
the people the art of agriculture and the use of herbs as medicine.
After several inferior rulers, Huang Ti (B.C. 2697) ascended
the throne.
According to tradition, he invented the Chinese Calendar and
the method of dividing time into cycles of sixty years. His wife
taught the people to rear silk-worms and to make garments of
silk.
The Reign of Yao (B.C. 2356).
Passing over four rulers we come to the time of Yao, who
may be considered the fourth of The Five Rulers. He and the
two succeeding Rulers, Shun and Yii, form a trio which has been
immortalized in the writings of Confucius and Mencius. They
are constantly referred to as peerless in wisdom and virtue,
and the period in which they lived is regarded as the Golden Age
of China. The effort of all reformers has been to incite those in
authority to imitate the lives of these ancient worthies, and thus
restore the halcyon days of Yao and Shun.
Owing to this process of glorification so much has been added
to the account of the lives of these men that it is impossible now
to separate fact from fiction. For instance^ we read that in their
A SKETCH OF OHINESB HISTORY. 11
days everyone was so honest that doors were never shut at night,
and that if anyone found an article of value lying on the road, he
would pass by without stopping to pick it up, allowing it to
remain there until the owner came and claimed it.
Tao became Ruler in B.C. 2356, at the age of sixteen.
The Qreat Flood (B.C. 2297).
The prosperity of his reign was disturbed by a great
inundation of the country caused by the overflow of the Yellow
River (commonly called China's Sorrow, on account of its frequent
overflows). The waters are said to have submerged a vast extent
of territory and to have risen to the tops of the mountains.
Probably the accounts of the disaster have been greatly ex-
aggerated, but, making every allowance, it must have been a
severe calamity,
Yao appoints Shun as his assoolate (B.C 2286).
Yao hearing of the great filial piety displayed by Shun, a
young man of twenty, determined to make him an associate in the
management of the affairs of the Kingdom, and for the rest of his
life he ruled conjointly with Shun.
Shun recommended to Yao the famous Yii as one competent
to cope with the disastrous flood, and through the efforts of the
latter the inundation was finally brought under control, the waters
being drained off into rivers, and into canals especially dug for
this purpose.
When Yao was about to die he passed over his own worthless
son and appointed Shun, to whom he had given his two daughters
in marriage, as his successor.
Astronomical Knowledge at this Period.
As early as the days of Yao the Chinese possessed considerable
astronomical knowledge. Two Astronomers, named Hsi and
Ho, were appointed to rectify the calendar by the insertion of
intercalary months so that the four seasons should recur at the
proper times. It was also their duty to study carefully the
heavenly movements, and give due notice of the approach of an
12 A. SKETCH Oy CHINESE HlfiTORT.
eclipse. According to tradition they neglected their duty, giving
themselves up to riotous living and drunkenness, and failed to
give warning of the approach of an eclipse of the sun. In
consequence of this remissness they were seized and executed by
royal command.
The Rei£^n of Shun (B.a 2266-2205).
Shun reigned alone for fifty-three years and devoted much
attention to the regulation of the religious services and to the
arrangement of a code of punishments. In the latter part of
his reign, following the example of his predecessor Yao, he
appointed, as an associate to assist him in the work of government,
the distinguished Yii, who afterward succeeded him and
established the first regular Chinese Dynasty, called the Hsig,
The form of Government at this period."
We mast keep clearly in mind that China as we know it now
is the slow growth of centuries. At the time of Yao and Shun
the territory ruled over by the Chinese comprised only the
Eastern half of the modern Province of Shensi, the Southern half
of the modern Province of Shansi, the Western part of the
modern Province of Shantung and the Northern half of the
modern Province of Honan [see map 1]. In area it was only
equal to about one-tenth of that of the present Eighteen Pro-
vinces. The Capital was at Yang-hsia near the modern T'ai-k*ang-
hsien in Honan.
From this territory the aborigines had been more or less com-
pletely expelled. The Chinese do not seem ever to have attempted
their entire subjugation but to have allowed them to live in
settlements of their own as long as they remained quiet and
submitted to their new masters. From the Sku-ching we learn
that the wild tribes were often subdued by pacific measures rather
than by a resort to force.
At the time of Yao and Shun the primitive patriarchal
«ystem of government had developed into the monarchical. This
was probably due to the fact that in the wars of conquest so much
V
A MAP
TO SHOW THB
GBADITAXi EXTENSION'
OVTHB
CHINESE EMPIRE
— to
;4.I>.
y-
A SKETCH OF OHINKSB HISTORY. 13
power fell into the hands of the snccessful chieftains that they
naturally came to exercise regal functions. The succession to the
throne was not at first strictly hereditary, but the sceptre was
handed on to the one best fitted to wield it. Although later on
the succession became hereditary, yet the Chinese have never
adopted any strict rule of primogeniture, and the throne as
often as not has passed to one of the younger sons. Generally the
Ruler himself shortly before his death indicates the heir-apparent.
During the period of Yao and Shun, we also see the
beginnings of what soon developed into the Feudal system of
government. The authority of ruling over portions of the
Kingdom was delegated to some of the great chieftains who had
distinguished themselves in the wars of their country, and they
soon came to exercise the prerogatives of Feudal Princes.
The Division of Land at this Period.
It is extremely difficult to understand clearly the early system
of land tenure adopted by the Chinese. All land was held as
a gift from the Ruler, and a portion of its produce .was required
by him in the way of taxes. According to the Shu-chingy there
was a five-fold division of territory, which may be roughly
described as follows. The Capital was fixed at the centre of five
squares of different sizes, enclosed one within another. The land
in closest proximity to the capital was the Royal Domain. It
extended in all directions for five hundred lis or one hundred and
sixty-six English miles. On this land, those living nearest to the
capital paid the heaviest and those at the greatest distance the
lightest taxes. Next to this was the land known as the Region of
the Nobles' Tenure, which consisted of lands allotted to the Great
Officers, the Barons and the Princes of the Kingdom. This also
extended in all directions five hundred lis. Outside of this was the
land known as the Region of Tranquil Tenure, extending five
hundred lis in all directions, three hundred lis being set apart for
the encouragement of literary instruction, and two hundred for the
warriors who were to defend the country from the encroachments
14 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
of external enemies. Outside of this was the land allotted to
foreigners, that is, tribes which had submitted to Ohina. To this
territory convicts were transported. Lastly there was the
territory known as the Wild Domain occupied by unsubdued wild
tribes and banished felons.
The Reliction of China at this time.
In the accounts given us of the worship in the days of Yao
and Shun, we have a picture of the primitive worship of the
Chinese people. When Shun ascended the throne he offered
animal sacrifices to Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, to the six
Objects of Honor, to the hills and rivers, and to the host of spirits
What the six Objects of Honor were we cannot learn with
certainty. From the sacrifices offered to Shang Ti we see that
along with the worship of the Powers of Nature, the Chinese
reverenced a god as much superior to all the other spirits as the
Chief Ruler of the country was superior to his subordinate princes.
As far back as we can trace, we also find the system of
Ancestral Worship. Each Ruler sacrificed to the spirits of his
ancestors, believing that they exercised great power for good
or evil over the fortunes of the country, being able to dispense
prosperity or calamity. It was also thought that the neglect of
these ancestral rites would be punished by the occurrence of
some severe national disaster such as a flood or pestilence.
The system of divination by means of consulting the
markings on the back of the tortoise and thus determining the
will of heaven, is also of very early origin, and explicit rules for
conducting this ceremony were clearly laid down.
The Eariy Constitution of Society.
The family has always been the unit of society among the
Chinese, and the interests of the individual have always beeit
subordinate to those of the family. The members of the same
family lived in one hamlet, and the ramifications of the family
composed the clan. The paucity of surnames among the Chinese i
is an evidence of the early division into clans. Along with th.le
A 8KBTCH OF CHINESE HI8T0BY. 15
government of the chief Ruler, or Emperor, and the Officials
appointed by him, there existed a system of local self-government.
The heads of the family and the heads of the clans had the control
of the people in regard to afiFairs of purely local character. This
local self-goverment still exists in China.
The establishment of the First Dynasty, the Hsia.
B.C. 2206. ' ^
XRefTEe" death of Shun, Yii succeeded to the throne, and
established the first regular Chinese Dynasty. The dynastic title
Hsia is derived from a small territory in the modern Province of
Honan, which had been given to him as a reward for his services
in bringing under control the flood of the Yellow River. In
regard to this monarch many legends are handed down, among
which are the following. During the whole eight years while he
was performing his Herculean task of draining the inundated
country he never once passed over the threshold of his own home
to visit his family. As a Ruler he was anxious to stand in the
closest relationship to his people, and so he caused a drum, a gong,
a square musical instrument of sonorous stone, a wooden bell and
a rattle to be suspended outside the walls of his palace. If any-
one wished to discourse with him upon the virtues that should
adorn a monarch, he need only strike upon the drum, and he
would be immediately admitted to the presence of his Monarch.
If anyone thought there was room for improvement in the
Monarch's manner of life, he need only strike the gong, and he
would be at once granted an audience. If anyone had tidings of
famine or rebellion, and came and rang the wooden bell, he
obtained at once an opportunity to impart his news. If any
magistrate had decided a case unjustly, the one who had been
wronged could come and strike the stone instrument, and he
would be ushered into the presence of his Monarch, before
whom he could present his appeal for redress. If anyone
wished justice in a law-suit, he might come and shake the
rattle.
16 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
Yii made some further conquests over the aboriginal tribes
and extended the boundaries of his Kingdom to the south as far as
the banks of the Yangtse River [see Map 2].
Before his time trade had been carried on chiefly by barter,
but now the gold and silver mines were worked and the precious
metals began to be used for the first time as media of exchange.
The Emperor Chieh (B.C. 1818-1766).
The reigns of the successors of the Emperor Yii contain little
worth recording. The succession to the throne became hereditary,
and as a consequence the imperial sceptre often fell into the
hands of those utterly incapable of wielding it well. The great
princes became more powerful, and frequent rebellions broke
out against the reigning monarch.
Chieh was the seventeenth and last ruler of the Dynasty.
He was completely under the influence of one of his con-
cubines, a beautiful but wicked woman named Mo Hsi, and is
regarded as one of the most infamous characters of Chinese
history. In company with this woman, he indulged in all sorts of
immoral excesses, and perpetrated many acts of cruelty. The
stories in regard to him read much like those told of the
Roman Emperors in the days of Rome's decadence. As an
example we may narrate the following. In the garden
of the Palace was an immense pool filled with spirits, upon
which guests were invited to row in small boats. At a given
signal, all the pleasure-seekers jumped into the pond, drank of the
wine, and sported about until they became intoxicated.
The Emperor also caused a subterranean palace to be built,
where for thirty days he and his concubines, with their dissolute
companions, engaged in immoral orgies. Although he was often
censured by some of his virtuous ministers, he persistently refused
to heed their rebukes and warnings.
The Rebellion of T'an£^y the Prince of 8han£^.
A virtuous prince named T'ang, said to be descended from the
Emperor Huang Ti, living in the little principality of Shang,
'^^" ' f
MAP OF
CHTKA
DURING^
HSIA DYXASTY
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PUBLIC lISRiRY
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A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 17
situated in the Eastern part of the modern Province of Honan,
became convinced that he was called by Heaven to save the
Empire from the ruin that threatened it in consequence of the
insane follies of the wicked Chieh, and to redress the grievances of
the long-suffering people. Collecting an army, he advanced
against the Capital, and gave battle to the imperial forces.
The engagement resulted in the complete defeat of Chieh,
who was compelled to abdicate the throne and was confined in
Nan-Ch*ao in the modern Province of Anhui. The victory gave
the throne to T'ang, whose rebellion is the first successful
one recorded in Chinese History.
18 y A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
CHAPTER III.
Epoch of the Development of the Tribal
Chieftains into Emperors (B.C. 1766-1122).
The 8han£^ or Yin Dynasty (B.C. 1768-1122).
When T'ang ascended the throne, he established his Capital
at Po, in the Eastern part of the modern Province of Honan.
He pacified the people by delivering an address in which he
stated that he had not desired to usurp the throne, but had
acted in acccord with the express command of Heaven. This
famous pronouncement is preserved for us in the Shu-ching,
and is an evidence of the Chinese idea that Heaven's will is
supreme, and that the sovereign power over the Empire is a trust
from Heaven to be exercised for the good of the people.
The Great Drou^^ht.
The principal occurrence of his reign x^as a great drought
which lasted for seven years. The people over a wide area were
reduced to starvation, and the suffering became so great that it
was thought some human victim must be oflFered to appease the
wrath of Heaven.
In this crisis the Emperor revealed true nobility of
character, and offered to surrender his own life in behalf of the
people. After having cut off his hair, and fasted for several days
in the manner of a penitent, he clothed himself in white robes, and
proceeded in a simple chariot, drawn by white horses, to a
mulberry grove, the appointed place for the sacrifice about to be
offered. There he confessed his sins, and besought Heaven to
visit upon him, "the single man," the punishment for the evil
deeds of his people. According to tradition the death of the
victim was not required, for in answer to his prayer copious rain
A SKBTCH OF CHINKSB HISTORY. IS
immediatelj fell from Heaven, refreshing the parched land, and
relieving the misery of the people.
Owing to the unselfishness and parity of his character, the
Chinese, who have strict ideas in regard to the succession to the
throne, have never regarded the Emperor T'ang in the light of
a usurper, but on the contrary commend his action in assuming the
imperial prerogative, and consider him one of their model rulers.
T'ang was much helped in his administration of the
Kingdom by an able Prime Minister named I Yin.
The Successors of T<an£^.
The immediate successor of T'ang was his grandson T'ai
Chia (B.C. 1753). This Emperor was weak in character, and
was soon led astray by evil companions. The Prime Minister I
Yin after frequent remonstrances finally persuaded him to retire
for a time into seclusion, to a place near the tomb of his
grandfather, for the purpose of meditating on his own shortcomings
and on the qualities which should adorn the life of the successor
of such a great Ruler a& the Emperor T'ang. The result
of this temporary retirement proved most salutary, and led to
an entire change in the Emperor's conduct.
During the reigns of the other Rulers of this Dynasty
nothing of marked importance occurred, and the Shu^ching, our
principal source of authority for this period, passes over in
silence the reigns of fourteen sovereigns after the time of T^ai
Chai.
During the reign of the Emperor P'an Keng (B.C. 1401)
it was decided to remove the Capital to Yin, a town in
Honan, North of the Yellow River. This removal was rendered
necessary on account of an overflow of the Yellow River. In
consequence of this change in the seat of government, the Dynasty
was thereafter known as the Yin, instead of the Shang.
The work of conquest was by no means finished and there
was a constant struggle with the wild tribes on the borders of the
empire. In addition to the wars with the aborigines, a new foe
20 A SKETCH OF CHINESK HISTORY.
appeared on the North, a Tartar Tribe. In the reign of Wu
Ting (B.C. 1292) a fierce but successful conflict was waged
with these Northern enemies and for a time they were vanquished.
This encounter is memorable because it was the beginning
of the long, intermittent struggle between the Chinese and the
Tartars, which lasted for so many centuries and finally resulted
in the conquest of China by the Manchus.
The relsn of Chou Hsin (B.C. 1154-1122).
Chou Hsin was the twenty-eighth and last ruler of the
Dynasty. In character he may be compared to the wicked Chieh,
the last ruler of the Hsia Dynasty. Although a man of undoubted
ability, he was extravagant, cruel, and dissipated. His favorite
concubine, T*a Chi, a woman of infamous character, aided and
abetted him in his life of debauchery. The large and costly
Palace known as " The Stag Tower " was built for her amusement^
and new and cruel methods of punishment were invented to
satisfy her delight in witnessing condemned prisoners suffering
under excruciating tortures. Among others, the following instance
of cruelty has been handed down. While walking in her garden
T*a Chi noticed when a number of men were crossing a stream,
near by, that the younger appeared to feel the cold more than
the elder. In a discussion which arose between her and tho
Emperor as to the cause of this, T*a Chi asserted that it was
because the young men had more marrow in their bones.
The Emperor would not accept this explanation, and in
order to decide the question commanded a number of old
and young men to be seized, and their legs broken and
examined.
The Rise of Chou (B.C. 1140).
At this time Wen Wang, the Earl of the feudatory state
of Chou, began to exercise a powerful influence in the Empire.
For presuming to criticize the Emperor for his misrule, he was
thrown into prison, and* released only after a large sum of money
had been paid for his ransom.
A SKETCH OF CHIKESB HISTOBY. 21
After Wen Wang's death, his son Wu Wang determined to
<;all the Emperor to account for his tyranny, and accordingly
gathered together a large army and invaded the Imperial domain.
A battle was fought in the Northern part of the modern Province
of Honan. Although Chou Hsin had 700,000 troops under his
command, he was disastrously defeated. He fled to the ^'Stag
Tower/' and there, arraying himself in his imperial robes, set fire
to the building and was burned to death. According to one
account, his body was afterward discovered among the ruins, and
the Head was cut off and exposed on a flag-pole. When the soldiers
of the victorious army entered the Capital, they were received by
the people with unbounded delight. T'a Chi was seized and
-executed, and so great is the detestation in which her memory is
held that she has often been regarded as the human incarnation of
a she wolf. Wu Wang won the hearts of the people by issuing
an order for the free distribution of grain among the poor, and
for the release from prison of all those who had been unjustly
confined.
.Ljind Tenure during the Shanff or Yin Dynasty.
During the Shang or Tin Dynasty land was allotted on the
following plan. Nine squares of equal size, each containing 100
mow were apportioned out to eight families; each family was
entitled to cultivate a square, and the ninth and central square was
cultivated by all in common and the produce from it paid as
a tax to the Government. The Chinese character representing
this system is ^, meaning a "well," and if enclosed on
the four sides (thus J ) will furnish a diagram of the
allotment.
The Deveiopment of the Government durin^^ this Period.
In the Shang or Yin Dynasty the rule of the Great
Tribal Chieftain developed into that of the Emperor. As
the boundaries of the Empire were enlarged, the Ruler naturally
«ame to possess more power and was regarded with more
22 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
reverence bj the people. The idea that he ruled bj divine
right was implanted in the minds of those over whom he
held sway, and his person was invested with a gtuisi sanctitude.
It was not long before he was looked upon as the specially
anointed one, ^* the Son of Heaven."
"tHS NEW YORK _
PUBLIC LlBtiRi i
A SKETCH OF CHIKBSS HISTORY. 23
CHAPTER IV.
The Feudal Period. (B.C. 1122-255).
The Founder of the Chou Dynasty (B.C 1122).
Wu Wang, after defeating Chou Hsin, founded a new\
Dynasty, oaied the Chou, from the name of the principality
over which ke had formerly ruled in the modem Province of
Shensi. His itle of Wu Wang means '*the warrior Prince."
Although a usurper, he is ranked as one of the exemplary
rulers of Chint. His reputation spread so far that the kings
of Corea and Cochin China sent embassies with rich gifts to
the Imperial couit.
The Development of the Feudal System.
The Empero' rewarded those who had helped him in the
struggle with Choi Hsin by grants of territory, and titles of honor
such as Duke, Mirquis, Earl, Count, etc. Thus the Empire
consisted of a coigeries of small states, each of which was
governed by its own petty ruler, who paid an uncertain fealty to
the Central Governnent. In course of time some of these vassal
kingdoms became so jowerful that the rulers assumed the title of
Kings. The whole pe-iod of the Chou Dynasty is taken up with
the conflicts between tiese petty Kingdoms, now one gaining the
ascendancy and now mother. Of these Kingdoms the most
important were the Lu,the Wei, the Ch'i, the Chin, the Ch'u, and
the Ch4n. Finally, as y^ shall presently narrate, the State of Ch'in
became so powerful that t succeeded in overthrowing the reigning
Dynasty and usurping th» imperial throne [see Map No. 3].
The Reli^n of Oh^ongYiSLng (B.C. 1115-1078).
Wu Wang was succeded by his son Ch'fing Wang, who did
much to establish the Dyiasty on a firm basis. As he was only
thirteen years of age whe. he came to the throne, his uncle the
\
24 A SKETCH OF CHIKISB HISTOBY.
Dake of Chon, a man of great ability and strict integritj, was
appointed regent. By him the yonng Emperor was carefully
instructed and prepared for the great duties he was ibout to
assume. It was also through the efforts of the Duke of Chou that
a rebeUion of the descendants of the former Dyiasty was
successfully suppressed.
The capital was removed from Hao in the modern Province of
Shensi (near the present Hsi-an Fu) to Lo-yi in Honan. The
reason for the transfer was that the latter ci^ was more
central, and the chiefs of the feudal states could sssemble there
more readily than at the former Capital.
Ch'Sng Wang made a royal visitation ihroughout the
different parts of the Empire, and in this way tri«d to impress his
subjects with the idea of the unity of the country, notwith-
standiug its division into so many separate states,
It was at this time also that a mint w]S established and
copper money like the modern cash was coined
The Emperor Mu (B.C- 1001-946).
Among the Emperors of the Chou Dynisty only a few call
for special mention. The immediate successor of Wu Wang were
men of ability and ruled the country with a strong hand, but those
who followed later were for the most part Veak and incompetent.
The Dynasty only managed to last as lon^ as it did, some eight
hundred years, because pf the jealousy between the numerous
feudatory States. Each was anxious to keep the others from
becoming too powerful, and resisted the ittempt of any one state
to seize the Imperial Throne.
According to tradition, the Empe/or Mu issued a decree
introducing the custom of the communion of offences by the
payment of fines. He had precedent foi this in the reigns of some
of the previous Emperors, but he w4 the first to sanction it
as a regular system. Whenever there ^as only probable evidence
of an offence having been committed^ the punishment might be
commuted by the payment of a sum of money by the accused
A SKETCH OF CHINESB HISTORY. 25
3)arty. From the time of this Emperor to the present day this
«ystem has been in vogue, and, needless to say, has often given rise
to extortionate bribery on the part of some of the oflBcials — the
most desperate criminals frequently being released, if only a
sufficiently large sum of money is paid to the unscrupulous judges.
Xhe Bmperor Yu (B.C. 781-770).
This Emperor was a thoroughly depraved man, and was
under the influence of a famous beauty called Pao-ssu. He was so
-completely enthralled by her charms that he put away the Empress
and made her his consort, and also disinherited his own son as heir-
apparent in favour of hers. Nature is said to have shown its
disapproval of this unnatnral act by an eclipse of the sun, which
iook place on August 29th, B.C. 775. This occurence is of
historical importance, as it gives us a fixed date by which the
-chronology of many other events has been computed. We may
say that from this date the historical period really begins.
The influence of Pao-ssii was a fatal one, and, like the famous
"beauties who caused the downfall of the Hsia and Shang Dynasties,
«he led the Emperor to commit innumerable acts of folly. She is
said to have been a woman who seldom manifested pleasure at
anything, and that this induced the Emperor to adopt the
following expedient to cause a smile to come to her face. He
<5ommanded all the beacons to be lighted. As these were only
lit in times of great danger as a signal for the Feudal Princes
to come to the defence of the Empire, the Nobles and Chiefs
of the various States with their retainers hastened with all
speed to the Capital, only to find that no danger was imminent,
and that the Emperor's reason for summoning them was that
their discomfiture might cause merriment to the proud Pao-ssu.
After a short time, the Capital was invaded by the Duke of
Shin, the father of the Empress who had been dethroned. Then
the Emperor in his extremity ordered the beacons to be lighted
again, but the feudatory Princes, fearing it was another false
<5ry of "wolf," refused to answer the summons. The Emperor
26 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTOBY.
accordingly found himself unable to offer any effectual resistance.
In the assault which followed he himself was slain, and then his
Capital was plundered, and Pao-ssu was carried off into captivity,
where she afterwards strangled herself. P'ing Wang, the son
whom he had disinherited, was raised to the Imperial Throne.
The growth of the power of the State of Ch'In.
Owing to the constant warring between the different States^
the latter part of the Chou Dynasty was a period of great
confusion. During the time of disorder, the State of Ch'iii!
secured a leading position. The chief reason for this was that
it was situated in the Southern part of the modern Province
of Kansuh, and was subject to constant attacks from the wild
Tartar Tribes, who sought an entrance into the Empire from the
North- West. Consequently it was obliged to keep a large
standing army in the field, and thus became very powerful from a
military standpoint. The independent spirit of its Duke was
displayed by his building an altar to Shang Ti, and offering upon
it the sacrifices which the Emperor alone had the right ta
offer. Gradually the State of Ch'in obtained control over the
other feudatory States, and became the foremost rival of the
central government.
Downfall of the Chou Dynasty.
Nan Wang (B.C. 314), the last Emperor of the Chou Dynasty,
fearing for his own safety, formed a league with many of the chief
nobles against the State of Ch'in. The powerful Duke of Ch'in,.
for the sake of self-preservation, felt forced to go to war with
his suzerain, and instead of waiting to be attacked, advanced with
his army into the Imperial territory, and gave battle to the forces
which were assembling to invade his own State. The Emperor's-
forces were utterly routed and he himself was taken captive. He
was then compelled to kneel before his captor, to beg for mercy,,
and to surrender a large part of his possessions.
He did not long survive the indignities which he suffered^
but died shortly afterward of a broken heart. Although
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 27
for a timo the Duko of Ch'in allowed a representative of
the Chou Dynasty to rule nominally over the Eastern part
of the Empire, yet the real power was in his own hands,
and it was not long before the Chou Dynasty came to an
end.
The Trio of Famous Philosophers.
The Chou Dynasty is rendered especially memorable from the
fact that during this period lived the three famous philosophers
who have had the greatest influence on Chinese morals and
civilization.
Lao Tzu (B.C. 604).
The first of these was Lao Tzu, the founder of the
system of philosophy called Taoism. He was born B.C. 604,
in the Eastern part of the modern Province of Honan, and lived
at about the same time that Socrates, Plato and Aristotle wore
teaching in Greece. Among the marvellous stories told about
him, is the statement that at his birth he had the appearance of
an old man, and hence was called Lao Tzii, which, literally
translated, means '* the old teacher." He held the position of keeper
of the archives at the Imperial court, but becoming disheartened
by the disorder and lawlessness of his times, retired from office
and led the life of a recluse, giving himself up to philosophical
speculation. He wrote the famous Tao Te Ching^ which in
its teaching may be compared to the abstruse speculations of
Keo-Platonism. "Tao" probably means impersonal Nature,
which permeates all things, and from which all things are evolved.
According to his teaching, true peace comes from ceasing to
strive and by living in harmony with the leadings of "Tao."
The cause of disorder in the world is the development by man
of what is artificial and unnatural, and the only remedy is
a return to the "Tao." His philosophy has never been
generally understood by the Chinese, and his ideas have been
perverted to such an extent that they have become the basis of
the most degraded and superstitious cult in the Empire.
28 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
Confucius (B.C. 522).
Confucius, the greatest of the trio, was born B.C. 522, in
the feudal State of Lu, situated in the Southern part of the modem
Province of Shantung. As a youth he was of a serious disposition
and his mind was bent on learning. He set himself the task
of collecting all the information possible in regard to the Ancient
Worthies, and taught that what was necessary to restore peace
and order was for the rulers to imitate the examples of the
Emperors Yao and Shun. At the age of twenty-two he gathered
about him a band of disciples, and spent his time in instructing
them in the principles of morality and good government.
At the age of fifty he was employed by the Duke of Lu as
keeper of the public granaries, and shortly afterward was put in
charge of all the public lands. He acquitted himself so well in
the performance of these duties that he was promoted to be
Minister of Justice, and finally was made Prime Minister. While
lie occupied this last oflSce, the State of Lu was exceedingly
prosperous and became one of the most powerful of the feudatory
States. This excited the jealousy of the other feudal Princes,
and induced the Duke of the State of Ch*i to use a stratagem to
bring about the downfall of this exemplary Prime Minister.
He sent as a present to the Duke of Lu eighty beautiful
concubines and one hundred and twenty-five horses. Upon
the receipt of this gift, the Duke of Lu gave himself up to a
life of pleasure and sensual indulgence, and began to neglect the
affairs of State. Confucius, after waiting a time, at last realized
that his influence for good was at an end, and accordingly
determined to leave [the State and to seek for some other ruler
who would put his teaching into practice. For a space of twelve
years he wandered from State to State. He was treated by most
of the feudal Princes with great discourtesy, and at times even
his life was in danger. At last he returned to the State of Lu,
and there spent the remainder of his days engaged in literary
work. He refused to take office again and devoted his time to the
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 2&
editing of the ancient classics. He died in B.C. 480. It was
only after his death that people turned to him as to a great teacher
of mankind, and nearly three centuries elapsed before he was
raised to the supreme position of honor and reverence he now
occupies in the minds of his countrymen.
Mencius (B.C. 372).
C^ncius, the third of the trio, was born in the feudal
State of Lu, in the year B.C. 372. While Confucius did not
claim to be an originator but only a transmitter, Mencius
was an independent and original thinker. He expounded the
teachings of his great Master, and also added his own reflections
on the nature of man and the essentials of good government. He
held an extremely optimistic view as to the original goodness
of human nature, and believed that it was possible for man by
Lis own efibrts to reach the state of perfection.
His sayings are now included among the principal classics
of Chinese Literature, and he himself is regarded as being second
only to Confuciug^,__/
30 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY,
CHAPTER V.
Period of Centralization (B.C. 221-206).
The Great Emperor 8hlh Huang Tl (B.C. 221-209).
After the deposition of Nan Wang the Dukes of Ch'in,
although virtually exercising the power of the Emperor, did not
at first dare to assume the imperial insignia. They had many
foes to contend with, and were engaged in constant wars with the
other powerful princes, who resented their arrogating to them-
selves the position of lordship over the Empire. At the close
of his life, the Duke Chao Hsiang Wang offered the imperial
sacrifices to Heaven, thus indicating that he regarded himself
as the occupant of the Dragon Throne.
r-N After several short reigns, Shih Huang Ti (often referred
to as Ch'in Hsih Huang) succeeded to the throne. He is the
most important ruler of this brief Dynasty, which lasted only some
fifty years. He assumed the title of Huang Ti, meaning Heavenly
Kuler, and thus placed himself on a level with the three great
rulers of the Mythical Period, Fu Hsi, Sh6n Nung, and Huang
Ti. The word Shih means "first" and indicates that he claimed
to be the first real Emperor.
rThe Dynasty he established is known as the Ch'in. It is
interesting to note that the name China is probably derived
from this word Ch'in, for the first Westerners who knew anything
about the Chinese spoke of them as the people of the land of
Ch'in, which afterwards becanie corrupted into the word China.
The Chinese themselves generally refer to their country as the
Middle Kingdom.
The capital was established at Hsien Yang near the modern
Hsi-an Fu in Shensi. Shih Huang Ti was only thirteen years;
of age when he ascended the throne, but soon showed thaLr
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 31
he was possessed of remarkable sagacity and strength of
oharacter. Perceiving that the feudal system of government
was a perpetual source of weakness to the Empire and a
constant menace to the imperial prerogative, he determined
on its abolishment. He bent all his energies to the task of
bi'inging the feudal States into submission, and then divided
the country into thirty-six Provinces, setting over each three
great officers, who were directly responsible to himself for
the way in which they conducted their provincial governments.
This system corresponds in the main to that existing at the
present day.
The Extent of his Empire.
After the work of subjugation had been completed, his
Empire extended from Chihli on the North to the Yangtsze River
and the modern Province of Chehkiang on the South; and from
the Yellow Sea on the East to the modern Province of Ssuch'uan
on the West.
The Destruction of the Classical Literature (B.C. 213).
Another event for which' his reign is memorable was the
attempt to destroy all the classical literature. He was led to
take this step by the advice of his Prime Minister Li-ssu, who
represented to him that the scholars were a great source of mischief
in the Empire, because during the period of confusion in the latter
part of the preceding Dynasty they had been wont to sell their
services to the highest bidder without respect to the welfare of
the Empire as a whole, and it was to be feared that they
-would continue to follow the same practice in the future. The
real reason for the unpopularity of the literati was that they
formed the conservative element of the country and threw the
weight of their influence against all the reforms the Emperor
Tvas desirous of instituting. They were always recalling the
halcyon days of antiquity and pointing out the superiority of
the past to the new regime recently introduced.
32 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
The Emperor, anxious to blot out the claims of antiquity, and ta
make history begin with himself, issued an edict commanding that
all the existing literature in the country, with the exception of
works on astrology, divination, medicine, and husbandry, should
be collected and burnt. It was a difficult decree to enforce,,
and undoubtedly many of the books were concealed and saved
from the holocaust. When the Emperor learnt that some of the
scholars had used treasonable language in regard to this order,
he condemned four hundred and sixty of them to be put to death,
to serve as a salutary warning to others. According to tradition
these men were buried alive.
For this action Shih Huang Ti has been regarded by the^
Chinese generally as a most impious tyrant. They have failed to
grasp the real significance of his action and have not perceived
that "his motive for burning the books of Confucius was to
obliterate the feudal system from the memory of China."
The Great Wall (B.C. 214).
With great and commendable zeal, the Emperor exerted
himself to advance the material prosperity of his country. Roadsr
were built in all directions, and rivers hitherto impassable were
spanned by bridges.
Owing to the constant incursions of the Tartar Tribes on the
Northern frontiers, he completed an enormous wall on the Northern
boundary of the Empire. It extended from 120^ to 100*
E. Longitude and vras about 1,500 miles in length.
Before the time of Shih Huang Ti walls had been:
constructed on the Northern frontier, but these were now united
and their fortifications strengthened and improved. The portion
now generally visited by travellers, thirty miles from Peking, i»
probably a more modern structure, and not the wall erected
two thousand years ago. We may compare this wall to
that built by the Romans in the time of the Emperor Hadrian,
across the Northern part of Britain, to oppose the inroads of the
Scots and Picts (A.D 121).
p-
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY, 83
The Superstition of the Emperor (A.D. 121).
Shih Huang Ti, notwithstanding his ability as a states-
man, was a slave to superstitious fears. He was in much
dread of death, and frequently consulted magicians to dis-
cover an elixir which would insure a long life. One of the
magicians told hira that he was pursued by evil spirits, and in
order to escape their influence, must arrange to sleep in a
diflferent room of his palace every night, the place where ho
intended to take his repose being kept a profound secret. Terrified
by this information he immediately gave orders for the erection
of an enormous palace, ta contain an immense number of
sleeping apartments. Several hundred thousands of criminals
are said to have been engaged upon the work, and an incredible
sum of money was expended for the satisfaction of this whim.
He wished the building to contain so many rooms that the
evil-minded demons who desired to shorten his days would
be completely mystified.
The Fail of the Ch'in Dynasty.
After the death of Shih Huang Ti, the Ch'in Dynasty lasted
only a few years. A civil rebellion broke out which resulted
in giving the throne to Liu Pang, the Prince of Han (a State
occup3'ing geographically the modern Southern Shensi and
Western Honan). Although the Dynasty had lasted so brief
a period, yet it accomplished the diflScult task of consolidating the
Feudal States into one great Empire. This union did not continue
for long and was not strong enough to hold together the various
discordant factions. In fact China had annexed and conquered
more territory than it was able to digest and assimilate. Never-
theless the temporary cohesion was sufficient to make it possible
for the Empire to enter on a course of further conquest, and tcr
offer a determined front to the incursions of the barbarous tribes on
the North. These attacks were soon to become more frequent,
and the account of them brings us to another Period in Chinese
History.
34 A SKETCH OF CHINSSB HI8T0BT.
DIVISION !!•
The First Struggle with the Tartars
(B.C. 206-A.D. 589).
CHAPTER VI.
The Han Dynasty (B.C. 206— A.D. 25)
Also Styled the Former or Western Han.
The Emperor Kao Ti or Kao Tsu (B.C. 206-194).
Liu Pang when he ascended the throne took the dynastic
title of Kao Ti, that is, the August Emperor, and named his
Dynasty the Han, from the small state in Shensi over which he
had ruled, and from the River Han near which he had been born.
This Dynasty may be considered the first national one, and
■even to the present day the Chinese, with the exception of the
Cantonese, commonly speak of themselves as the " Sons of Han.''
The Emperor began his reign by pacific measures, and
<5onciliated the scholars by repealing the decree of Shih Huang
Ti, in regard to, the destruction of the classical literature. A
search was instituted, and all the books which had escaped the
flames were sought out, and honor was paid again to the teaching
of the Sages. Kao Ti was the first of the Chinese Emperors
to offer sacrifice at the tomb of Confucius.
The Capital was established at Ch'ang-an near the present'
Hsi-an Fu in Shensi. This spot was settled upon because the
Emperor desired to be in a position where he could watch the
movements of the Northern Barbarians, whose inroads from this
time began to assume serious proportions.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTOBT. 35
The Hsiun^-nu or Hun Tartars.
The wild tribes disturbing the peace of the Empire at this
lime were the Hsiung-nu, inhabitants of Mongolia, These people
were probably of the same stock as the Huns and Turks
who afterward made inroads into Europe, the Huns becoming
the great scourge of Europe under the leadership of Attila in
A.D. 445.
They were a nomadic people, and spent most of their
time on horseback, saying that their country was the backs
of their horses. They moved from place to place with their
flocks and herds, always in search of fresh pastures. Horses,
-cattle, and sheep were their usual possessions, but they occasionally
had camels, and also asses, mules, and other peculiar breeds
of the equine family. They had no cities or towns, but a certain
portion of the territory they passed over in their migrations was
assigned to each tribe, each tent or household having allotted to
it a piece of land for its exclusive use. They were uncultured
and had no written language. Their children, when mere babies,
were taught to ride on the backs of sheep, and to shoot small
animals and birds with little bows and arrows ; and as they grew
older they practised their skill on foxes and larger animals. They
fed upon flesh and milk, and used the skins of animals for
clothing. They always fought on horseback, throwing their
enemy into confusion by advancing against them with their horses
at full speed.
At this time they had spread over the Northern part of the
modern Provinces of Shensi and Chih-li.
Eastern and Western Tartars.
A distinction may be made between the Eastern and Western
Tartars. The Hsiung-nu belong to the Western branch of the
Tartars, and were the ancestors of the Turks, the Ouigars, the
Khigiz, the Mongols, etc. The Eastern Tartars were known as
the Tunghu, Tunguses, or Hsien-pei, and were the ancestors of th^
Cathagans or Khitans, the Manchus, and the Coreans.
^6 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
The Invasion of Mao-tun.
Daring the reign of the Emperor Kao Ti an immense armj
of Hsiung-nu, nnder the command of a chief named Mao-tun, bj-
skirting the Western end of the Great Wall, made a foray into
Chinese territory, and entering what is now the Province of
Ssuch^oan, carried off a large quantity of booty. The Emperor
Kao Ti took command of the army sent to resist them. Findings
himself hemmed in on all sides, he was obliged to take shelter
in the city of P'ing in Shansi, and there was besieged. Tha
city was so closely invested that the Emperor was in great danger
of falling into the hands of the enemy. In this emergency he
had resort to the following stratagem. He caused a number of
wooden puppets representing beautiful maidens to be exhibited on
the city walls, and sent a message to the wife of Mao-tun, who
had accompanied the expedition, stating that they were to be
presented to her husband. Mao-tun's wife, actuated by jealousy
and anxious to keep her husband from being enamored of the
charms of these Chinese beauties, entreated and finally persuaded
him to raise the siege and withdraw his troops into his own
territory.
After the lapse of a few years the Hsiung-nu made another
invasion into Chinese territory, and this time the Emperor was
forced to buy off their leader by giving him as a consort one
of his own daughters, and by promising an annual subsidy,
payable in silks, rice, and wine.
The infinfiediate Successors of Kao Ti.
The remainder of the reign of Kao Ti was occupied in
suppressing internal rebellions incited by the very men
who had helped him obtain the Empire. Upon his death,
his son, Hui, a lad of eleven years, succeeded to the throne
(B.C. 194). The mother of this boy, Lu-chih, the first of
Chinese Catherines, ruled as Regent, and, after the death of the
young Emperor, managed to keep the Imperial power in her own
hands for a considerable length of time. She plotted to found
A SKETCH OF OHINBSBS HISTORY. 37
a new Dynasty composed of her own kinsmen, but in this was
unsuccessfah Upon her death the great officers of. the Empire
nnanimously agreed to elevate to the throne a son of the late
Emperor by one of his concubines. This Emperor, known
in history as Wen Ti (B.C. 179), was a humane ruler and
modified the five great punishments (the branding of the face,
excision of the nose, chopping off the feet, castration, and death) so
as to make them somewhat less barbarous ; and flogging was
largely substituted in their place. He also encouraged literature,
and made a further search for the books which had escaped
destruction during the reign of Shih Huang Ti.
During his reign the Empire was troubled by the repeated
raids of the Hsiung-nu, and although immense armies were raised
to oppose them, yet little was accomplished in the way of
effectually stemming their advances.
He was succeeded by his son Ching Ti (B.C. 156-140), who
in turn was succeeded by his son Wu Ti (B.C. 140-86).
The Reiffn of Wu TI.
In Wu Ti's reign an attempt was made to destroy the
Hsiung-nu by a clever ruse. They were invited to take possession
of a border city, the country around which was reported to be rich
in gold mines. The plan of the Emperor was to entice the
barbarian chieftain with his whole army into an ambuscade, and
accordingly in the neighbourhood of the territory offered to the
Hsiung-nu a large Chinese force was concealed with instructions
to fall upon the enemy as soon as they had entered the trap. The
Tartar chieftain, greedy for the expected wealth, nibbled at
the bait, and with a hundred thousand men passed through the
Great Wall and advanced to a place thirty miles distant from that
which he was invited to occupy. On the march, he noticed, however,
many herds of cattle grazing in the fields without any keepers,
and this unusual sight aroused his suspicions. Fearing false play,
he immediately retired from the dangerous position and returned
to his own borders, thus frustrating the plot of the Emperor.
88 A 8KBTCH OF CHINSSB HISTOBT.
The Hsiung-nu were most indignant at this proposed
treachery, and took vengeance on the Chinese hy farther
incnrsions into the Northern part of the Empire.
Another important event of this reign was the removal of a
Tartar tribe called the Yoeh-chi from their ancient seat in the
modem Province of Kansuh, to the West. They were compelled
to undertake this migration on account of being molested by
frequent attacks of the Hsinng-nn. This may be said to have
been the beginning of the great Western movement of the
Tartars which continued for so many centuries, and which had
such disastrous consequences for the countries of Eastern Europe.
This tribe settled in the country now called Bokhara, and remained
there until they were gathered up in the great Western march of
the Hans, and hurled in conjunction with them on the Roman
Empire.
Enlargement of the Empires during the Rel^n of the
Emperor Wu Ti.
The reign of Wu Ti is celebrated for several great military
conquests. On the North- West he defeated and subjugated the
Ordos, and annexed the whole of the modern Kansuh. On the
South he added to the Empire the modern Province of Kuangtung
(inhabited at that time by a race akin to the Annamese), Tong King,
Hainan, Kuangsi, and part of Kueichou. On the West the
whole of Ssuch'uan and a part of Yunnan were annexed, and
on the North-East the Northern part of Corea was subjugated.
The reason for undertaking the conquest of Oorea was a
desire to turn the flank of the Hsiung-nu and thus keep them
from entering the Empire from that quarter.
These conquests had the result of making China further
acquainted with the countries of the West, and at this period
there began an intercourse with Parthia, Mesopotamia, and the
Greek Dynasties of Bactria and Afghanistan. An attempt was
made to reach India by way of Yunnan, and Hindoo missionaries,
for the first time, found their way to China, The Roman Empire
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISXORT. ^ 29
became known to the Chinese and was referred to bj the
name of Ts'in*
The Rebellion of Wans Mans (A.D. 0).
Passing over several of the Emperors of the Han Dynasty we*
come to the reiojn of P'ing Ti (A.D. 1-6), which brings us to the
betrinninor of the Christian era.
P'ing Ti was a weak ruler, and consequently the chief power
was seized by an unscrupulous minister, named Wang Mang, who
plotted to usurp the throne for himself. On New Year's Day^
when he presented himself with the other Princes to pay hi&
respects to the Emperor, he contrived to put poison in the*
Emperor's wine-cup. In consequence of drinking the draught the
Emperor was seized with violent paroxysms and died shortly
after in great agony. Wang Mang, by simulating grief at.
the decease of the Emperor, was able for a time to deceive
the people as to his true aims. He caused a child two
years of age, Ju Tzu Ying, to be raised to^ the throne and
himself to be appointed Regent. His intention of usurpation
soon became evident, but as the control of the army was in
his hands, the Princes of the House of Han were powerless to
offer any opposition. After being allowed to reign for three years
the little Emperor was set aside and Wang Mang openly assumed
the title of " New Emperor," giving out that he had received a.
revelation from Kao Ti, the founder of the Han Dynasty^
sanctioning his succession.
This step roused the Princes of the House of Han to rebellion,
and the whole of the reign of the usurper was taken up in wars
with them and in struggles with the Hsiung-nu, who also,
refused to regard him as the lawful Emperor. It was a time of
the greatest disorder. A band of marauders, known as the " Red
Eyebrows," from their custom of dying their eyebrows red, arose
in what is now the province of Shantung, and, out of pretence of
loyalty to the Hans, committed great depredation throughout the
country.
40 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
At last two cousins, Princes of the House of Han, collected
an army of one hundred thousand foot soldiers and an equal
number of cavalry, and advanced against Wang Mang. The
usurper met them with a much larger fofce, but in the battle
which ensued he was disastrously defeated and was obliged to
flee to Ch'ang-an. Thitlier he was pursued, and in despair, as
the victorious army entered the city, concealed himself in a tower.
He was discovered, dragged from his place of hiding, and
beheaded ; and afterwards his body was cut into a thousand
pieces and his head exposed in the market-place.
The Han Dynasty was then restored, one of the successful
generals, named Liu Hsiu, being raised to the throne.
The restored Dynasty is known as the Later or Eastern Han.
A SKETCH OF CHINKS B HISTORY. 4l
CHAPTER VII.
The Later or Eastern Han Dynasty (A.D. 25-214).
The Reiffn of Kuans Wu Tl rA.D. 25-58).
Liu Hsiu, when he ascended the throne, took the title of
Kuang Wu Ti. On account of Ch*ang-an being invested by the
rebels, he removed the Capital to Lo-yang, in the modern Province
of Honan. The Empire was divided into thirteen provinces
instead of thirty-six, over which officials corresponding to Satraps
tfere appointed to rule as in the system of government existing
to-day.
By putting forth great exertions, he succeeded in crushing
the "Red Eye-brows." In one of the many engagements with
them he made use of the following plot. He disguised several
thousands of his soldiers as " Red Eye-brow " rebels, and placed
them in ambush near the battle-field. During the course of the
battle they suddenly made their appearance and were hailed by the
rebels as reinforcements. When the conflict was at its height,
these seeming rebels threw off their disguise, and the " Red Eye-
brows " found themselves caught between two hostile armies, and
thus were forced to capitulate. The Emperor, in order to conciliate
these insurgents, pardoned their leaders and appointed them to
posts in the government service.
The reign of Kuang Wu Ti was chiefly occupied in warring
against diflferent bands of rebels, which had arisen all over the
country against the usurper Wang Mang.
Among the most notable wars of his reign was one against a
female chieftain, named Cheng-ts'e, the ruler of the Northern part
of Annam (modern Tong King), who had refused to pay the
customary tribute to the Empire. The struggle of this Chinese
Boadicea for independence was put down with ruthless severity,
and both she and her sister were beheaded.
42 A BKBTOH OF CHINB6S BISTORT.
Mlns Tl (A.D. 68-76). introduction of Buddhism Into
Chlna-
Kuang Wu Ti was succeeded by his son Ming Ti, in whose
reign Buddhism was first introduced with imperial sanction into
China. In the time of Wu Ti, some two hundred years before,
a golden image, supposed to have been the image of Buddha, had
been taken along with other plunder from the Hsiung-nu, and
also at about the same time, as we have already stated, some
Hindoo missionaries had found their way into China ; but it wa»
not until the reign of Ming Ti that the Chinese obtained any-
extended knowledge of the tenets of the religion of India. The-
Emperor Ming Ti had a dream, in which there appeared to him *
the figure of a golden man. Upon seeking an interpretation he-
was told that a wonderful saint had arisen in the West, named
Fo (Buddha), and that the dream referred to him. Consequently
the Emperor sent an embassy into India to make investigations
in regard to the teachings of this saint. The envoys on their return
brought back with them a copy of a Sutra, one of the Buddhist
Classics, and also some Buddhist priests whom they had persuaded
to accompany them. The spread of the new religion began in this
way. At first, however, it made but little progress, and it did not
succeed in gaining a firm foothold in China until three hundred
years later.
One of the most important works of the reign of this Emperor
was the construction of a dyke, thirty miles long, as a barrier
to check the overflow of the Yellow River. It is stated that as
long as this was kept in repair there was a cessation of the
periodic floods.
Ho Ti (A.D. 80-106).
In the reign of Ho Ti, China possessed many able generals, who
were engaged in the conduct of expeditions against the Hsiung-nu.
The Tartars by this time had extended their conquests as far a»
Central Asia; and in their campaigns against them the Chinese
generals led their forces across the T4en Shan (Heavenly
A SKETCH or OHINRSB HISTORY. 43-
Mountains) and also penetrated as far as the shores of the
Caspian Sea. It is said that on one of these expeditions the^
Chinese armj reached the Eastern boundaries of the Koman
Empire.
Une Ti (A.D. 168-100). Struffffle with Eastern Tartars.
Passing over five Emperors, we come to the reign of the
Emperor Ling Ti. While this Emperor was on the throne, the
Tung-hu, a branch of the Eastern Tartars, who had gained
temporary ascendancy over the Hsiung-nu (Western Tartars)^
made an incursion into Chinese territory. A brave and skilful
general named Ch*ao Pao was dispatched against them. During
the campaign the mother and wife of the general fell into the
hands of the enemy, and when the two hostile armies were
drawn up for battle the Tung-hu brought them forth, and
placing them in full view of the Chinese army, declared that
unless Ch'ao Pao would surrender they would murder them before
his eyes. Ch'ao Pao was confronted with the terrible alternative
of either acting in a way that would be disloyal to his
Emperor or of grossly violating the principle of filial piety •
After a severe mental struggle, and at the earnest behest of his
mother, he finally decided to sacrifice her and his wife in the
interests of his country.
When the barbarians heard of this determination they
slaughtered the two women in sight of all the Chinese troops.
Infuriated by the spectacle, the Chinese made a desperate
onslaught and completely routed the enemy. The fact of his
having caused the death of his own mother so preyed upon
Ch'ao Pao's mind that he died shortly afterward of grief and
remorse.
The Eneourasement of Literature-
The Emperor Ling Ti was a patron of Literature, and in
A.D. 175 he caused the Five Classics to be engraved on stone
and set up at the door of the Imperial College. He also established
44 A SKETCH OF CHIKB8S HI8T0BT.
Ihe system of esammations for literary degrees. Up to this time
ihe government preferment had been at the disposal of the
Emperor, bat hereafter education in the Chinese Classics became a
necessary qualification. Employment in official life was open
to those passing the best examinations in the Confacian Classics,
the writing of verses, and the composition of essays. This
system has been in vogue in China ever since, and has
resuUed in making the literati the most influential class in the
Empire.
The Three Great Traitors of China-
During the Han Dynasty there arose successively in China
■three men who are known as the three greatest traitors of Chinese
History. These were Wang Mang, Tung-cho, and Ts'ao Ts'ao.
To the career of the first of these, Wang Mang, we have already
referred, and we must now give a brief account of the other two.
'The Traitor Tun£ Cho.
Tung Cho was a General in the Imperial army, and during
^ period of confusion caused by an attempt on the part of one
of the factions in the Court to massacre the Imperial eunuchs,
who had become very powerful, he siezed the Imperial power
for himself, dethroned the reigning Emperor, and placed Hsien
Ti, (A.D. 190-214) a boy Prince, upon the throne. This youth
was weak, mentally and physically, and was a mere puppet in the
hands of Tung Cbo, who occupied the position of Prime Minister
=and thus virtually ruled the Empire.
The Capital was removed from Lo-yang back to its former
-site at Ch*ang-an. His usurpation was not submitted to
•quietly, and rebellions sprang up all over the country. Tung
Cho suppressed these with the utmost severity and cruelty, putting
to death all whom he suspected of disloyalty to himself. He gave
an appearance of legality to all his acts by announcing that they
were performed with the consent and approval of the Emperor.
As the result of his many acts of high-handed tyranny, he
^became universally detested, and finally was slain by one of hia
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 45-
own lieutenants, named Lii-pii, a man whom he had adopted as
his son. His death, however, instead of bringing peace to the
Empire only increased the disorder; and at this juncture the
third of the three great traitors, Ts'ao Ts'ao, made his appearance
at the Capital with three hundred thousand men, and, forcibly-
taking possession of the person of the Emperor, placed himself"
at the head of the government.
46 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTOBT,
CHAPTER VIII.
The Period of Disunion at the Close of the
Han Dynasty (A.D. 214-223).
The Character of the Period.
This period, generally known as that of the Three Kingdoms,
is looked upon by the Chinese as the most romantic in the whole
of their history, and may be compared in some respects to the
age of chivalry in Europe.
The story of those who at this time played a leading part
lias been popularized in the great historical noyel called "The
Three Kingdoms," the exciting incidents of which are often acted
-on the stage or recited by the village story-tellers. The accounts
of the period abound in many marvellous adventures and hair-
breadth escapes, and it is difficult to know how much is to be
attributed to the imagination of the writers and how much was
actual occurrence.
The Three Kinffdoms.
The period derives its name from the fact that at this time
the Empire was divided into three separate Kingdoms. The first
was the Kingdom of Wei, which comprised the Central and
Northern provinces, and had as its capital the city of Lo-yang.
The second was the Kingdom of Wu, and consisted of the
provinces South of the Yangtsze River, the modern Hunan,
Hupeh, Kiangsu, and Chehkiang, with the capital at Nanking.
The third was the Kingdom of Shu, and included the Western
part of the Empire, the modern province of Ssuch'uan, with the
•Capital at Ch*eng-tu [see Map 4].
Ts*ao Ts'ao as Prime Minister virtually ruled over the
Kingdom of Wei, and finally forced the Emperor Hsien Ti to
MAP OF
CHINA
DURIN6 THE PERIOD GF
THE THBUi: KINGI>OMS
THB NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIB ft A RY
v^Tc-R. LENOX AN*
x-:n F-joNQArtowi,
f«"
1
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 47
abdicate. Upon the death of Ts*ao Ts'ao, his son Ts*ao Pei,
after putting Hsien Ti to death, ascended the throne, and
declared himself Emperor. The Kingdom of Wu was ruled by
an able General named Sun Ch'*uan, and the Kingdom of Shu by
a Prince named Liu Pei, who claimed to be a descendant of the
Emperors of the Han Dynasty, and so the rightful heir to the
throne. The Dynasty established by the latter is known in history
as the Minor Han, and is recognized as the lawful line during this
period of confusion. Liu Pei was assisted in his campaigns against
his enemies by two famous generals named Chang Fei and Kuan
Yii. These three men sealed their agreement to be faithful to each
otjier until death in the famous " peach-garden oath " by drinking
blood drawn from one another's arms. The general Kuan Yii,
on account of his great prowess in battle, was afterward deified
in the Ming Dynasty (A.D. 1594) as the god of war, and is now
worshipped all over China under the name of ** Kuan Ti."
The Wars between the Three Kinsdoms.
Liu Pei had as his Prime Minister a man named Chu-ko
Liang, who was celebrated for his great sagacity and for his
ability as a strategist. To him are attributed many mechanical
inventions, such as the "wooden oxen and running horses" as a
means of transport, and a bow for shooting many arrows at a
time. He also improved and perfected the " Eight Dispositions,"
a series of military tactics. Contrary to the advice of his
Prime Minister, Liu Pei determined to lead an expedition into the
Kingdom of Wu. He was incited to take this step by the desire
of seeking revenge for the death of his sworn brother Kuan Yfi,
who had been slain by one of Sun Ch'iian's generals. The
expedition resulted disastrously, and his army was only saved from
•complete annihilation by the clever strategy of Chu-ko Liang.
Liu Pei upon his death was succeeded by his son Hou Chu,
who made peace with the Kingdom of Wu.
After peace had been made between the Western and the
Southern Kingdom, preparations were begun for an expedition
48 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
against the Kingdom of Wei. Before leading an army into the
territory of Ts'ao Pei, it was deemed advisable to invade Burmah^
lest while the army was absent the Burmese should seize the
opportunity of making an attack on the Kingdom of Shn. The
Bnrmese were defeated and forced to submit, and then, this
danger of an invasion from the rear having been removed, the
expedition started for the Kingdom of Wei.
In the meantime Ts'ao Pei had died and had been succeeded
by his son T^'ao Jui, who took the imperial title of Ming Ti
(A.D. 227). The attempt on the part of the Kingdom of Shu to
conquer the Kingdom of Wei proved a failure, the army of Shu,
under the command of Chu-ko Liang, being put to flight by the
army of Wei, commanded by Ssti-ma I.
In the course of his retreat Chu-ko Liang resorted to a ruse
which won for him the admiration of his countrymen. With the
handful of men still left to him he occupied a deserted walled
town. As the enemy drew near in pursuit, he commanded some
of his men to throw open the gates of the city and to stand before
them with brooms in their hands as if engaged in sweeping
the streets. He himself mounted the city wall, and, seated in
the tower over the gate, began to play upon his lute. The
enemy were surprised at this strange spectacle, and, suspecting an
ambuscade, were afraid to enter the gates which stood open so
invitingly. Fearing an attack from some hidden foe, they
withdrew in haste, and thus Chu-ko Liang was enabled, without
further loss, to lead ofl^ the survivors of his army.
Although the armies of the Kingdom of Shu afterward
gained some successes in their battles with the Kingdom of Wei,
they were never able to efl*ect a complete conquest. This was
largely due to the fact that they were obliged to carry on the war
at a great distance from their base of operations, and met with-
much difficulty in transporting their supplies across the mountain
passes of Ssuch'uan.
A SKBTCH OF OHINBBE HISTORY. 49
The Close of the Period of the Three Klnfi^doms.
After the death of Chii-ko Liang, Hou Chu was deprived of
competent counsellors, and as time elapsed his character underwent
marked deterioration. He gave himself up to a life of luxury,
and no longer exerted himself to increase the strength of his
Kingdom. Consequently the King of Wei seized the opportunity
of putting an end to the existence of its rival. By an
expedition sent into Ssuch*uan, Hou Chu was defeated and
taken prisoner.
He was led in triumph to Lo-yang, the Capital of Wei, and
confined as a prisoner of State. Out of contempt for his weakness
of character and fondness for pleasure, his conqueror bestowed
upon him the title " Duke of Pleasure."
With the fall of Hou Chu, the Han Dynasty came to an end.
After a brief period, owing to the incapacity of the Riilets of Wei,
an able general, Ssu-ma Chao, son of Ssu-ma I, became the virtual
Ruler of the Northern Kingdom. He himself did hot dare to
assume the title of Emperor, but after his death his son, Ssu-ma
Yen, ascended the Dragon Throne and established a new Dynasty,
known as the Western Tsin.
50 A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
CHAPTER IX.
The Division of the Empire between the Tartars
IN the North and the Chinese in the South
(A.D. 223-589).
The Western Tsin (A.D. 265-317).
When Ssu-ma Yen ascended the throne in 265 he took the
dynastic title of Wu Ti, and called his Dynasty the Tsin, from the
name of the dukedom over which his father had ruled. He
introduced some important reforms into the government, and
checked the lavish expenditure which had characterized the
Kingdom of Wei during its latter days. The principal event of
his reign was an attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Wu. This
was an exceedingly difficult undertaking because it involved
leading an expedition across the Yangtsze River. This great river
has always been a natural dividing line between the iJorth and
South of China, and more than once, as we have already stated, has
formed the boundary of separate kingdoms, Wu Ti had in his
army several efficient Generals, and finally, partly by force and
partly through conciliatory methods, succeeded, for a brief period,
in subjugating the Southern Kingdom.
The Rebellion of the Hsiunfi^-nu.
One result of the incessant border wars between the Chinese
and the Tartars had been a commingling of Tartar and Chinese
blood. This came about by Chinese princesses being presented
to the Tartar chieftains as consorts whenever truces were made
with them.
Consequently we come now to a period when with much show
of justice the Tartar chiefs could put forth claims to the possession
of Imperial blood in their veins, and thus to being the lawful
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 61
heirs to the Dragon Throne. Liu Yiian, a Tartar chieftain with a
strain of Chinese blood, taking advantage of the fact that the
second Emperor of the Western Tsin Dynasty, Huai Ti, was
incapable of governing the Empire well, gathered a force of 50,000
men, and styling himself the Prince of Han set up for worship the
ancestral tablets of the Han Emperors, in token that he claimed
to be the rightful Emperor of China. His brother Liu Chang,
who succeeded him, led away into captivity the third and fourth
of the Western Tsin Emperors. After this the Hsiung-nu for
sixty years reigned supreme in the North of China. They
established their Capital near the modern Peking and called their
Hulers the "Sons of Heaven."
" Coming events cast their shadow before," and this temporary
seizure of power by the less civilized and more warlike tribes of
the North was but the prelude to the final complete domination of
the Empire by the Tartars.
The Eastern Tsin Dynasty (A.D. 317-420).
When the last of the Western Tsin Emperors had been
carried away captive by the Hsiung-nu, the Empire in the South
i7v^a» left without a head. One of the descendants of the imperial
line of Ssu-ma I constituted himself Emperor, and established his
capital at Nanking, taking the dynastic title of Yiian Ti, and
calling his Dynasty the Eastern Tsin.
The Character of the Period during: the Eastern Tsin.
During the time of the Eastern Tsin the greatest confusion
prevailed and the Empire again went through a process of
disintegration. In the South there were numerous claimants to
the throne, who waged constant warfare with one another. In the
ITorth the Tartars were firmly established.
Finally, in the South, Liu Yii, a General who had won
distinction as a supporter of the Eastern Tsin Dynasty in its
struggle with the other rival Princes, brought the strife to an end
for a time by deposing the last of the Eastern Tsin Emperors and
52 A SKBTOH OF CHIKBS2 HISTORt.
establishing a new Dynasty, known as the Sung, with himself as-
the first Emperor.
This division of the Empire shows how loosely it was held
together, and how it had never become really consolidated.
In times of trouble the centrifugal force was always stronger
than the centripetal, and the central government was unable to-
hold all the parts together by bonds strong enough to resist
disruption.
The Sungr Dynasty (A.D. 420-479).
Liu Yii when he became Emperor was known by the two-
names Wu Ti and Kao Tsu. He was sixty-four years of age, and
reigned but a short time. Although nominally the 'Emperor of
China, yet in reality his sway was a very limited one. The North
still remained in the hands of the Tartars, and was divided up into
many small kingdoms. The most important of these were the Wei
(ruled over by Eastern Tartars), the Hsia (ruled over by tha
Hsiung-nu), the Northern Yen (ruled over by Eastern Tartars),
the Western Liang, and the Western Tsin (ruled over by a
Thibetan Family).
The important feature of the Period is the constant struggle
between the Chinese in the South and the Tartars in the North,,
and consequently it is known as the Epoch of the Division
between the North and the South. Just aS in Roman History^
the Teutonic Tribes annexed the North of the Empire before
they made their final conquest, so in Chinese History the-
Tartars established themselves first in the North and at a later
period moved on to the South.
The Kinfi^dom of Wei.
The most powerful of the Northern Kingdoms was that of
Wei, founded by a Tartar family named Toba. It extended
over a part of modern Chihli and Shansi, and gradually
absorbed the whole of modern Honan, part of the Kingdom^
being to the North and part to the South of the Yellow
A 8K8T0H OF CHP^^SB HISTOST. 59
Biver. The Capital was sitqajbqd at Loyang. After oonquering
most of the other Northern Kingdoms it became the chief
rival to the House of Sung.
The Pro8:ress of pivllizatlon among the Tartars,
Although at first, as we have already noted, these Tartars
were a rude and barbarous people, yet after they entered China
they accepted the civilization of the people whom they conquered.
They became acquainted with Chinese literature, and were
influenced by the teachings of the Buddhist and Taoist religions.
In a very short space of time they adopted Chinese customs
and manners. A remarkable feature of the successive conquests
of China by the Tartars is that they have assimilated with much
readiness the superior civilization of China and added very
little to it themselves. We may find an historical parallel in
the adoption of the Roman civilization by the Teutonic peoples
who overthrew the Western Roman Empire.
The 8trus:s:ie between the H^MSf • of Bm%B and Wei,
The fourth Emperor of the Sung Dynasty, Wfen Ti (A.D.
424-454), made a determined effort to rescue Honan from tha
the hands of Toba Tao, the third Emperor of the Northern
Wei Dynasty, for he was anxious to limit the boundaries of the
Kingdom of Wei to the Nqrtbern banks of jbhe Yellow River.
The attempt proved a failure, for in winter, when the Yellow £iver
w.i|s frozen, the army of Wei effeoted a crossing and droye
out the troops of Sung from the position they pcqupied in
Southern Uonan.
Some time later the Emperor of Wei, Tobc^ Tao, led aii
immense expedition into the territory of W6n Ti. The progress
of his army was marked by savage atrocities. Six provinces
-were overrun, apd the hostile horde penetrated U> the banks of the
Titngtsze. Finally, unable to obtain food for his vast host in
ibe eneo^y's coi^ntry, Toba Tao was compelled to retreat before
^6 liad succeeded ia taking N^Qkiiig.
54 A SKETCH OF CHINESB HISTORY.
A Short-lived Dynasty, the Ch<i (A.D. 470-502).
A military commander j named Hsiao Tao, noted for his
physical prowess, raised himself to prominence by the bravery-
he displayed in the wars with the Kingdom of Wei, and
finally became strong enough to usurp the Imperial Throne.
He assumerd the title of Kao Ti, and established a new Dynasty
known as the Ch'i (479-502).
This Dynasty lasted, however, only a short time, and wa»
overthrown by another usurper, named Hsiao Yen, who set up
a Dynasty called the Liang.
The Uangr Dynasty (A.D. 502-557).
Hsiao Yen, upon ascending the throne, took the dynastic
title of Wu Ti. He was favourably inclined to learning, and
throughout the country established schools in which the
writings of Confucius were carefully studied. Large sums of
money were devoted to the purpose of building temples dedicated
to the worship of Confucius and his disciples.
The 8les:e of Hsians:-yans: XA.D. 516).
Wu Ti's principal ambition was to conquer and annex the
Kingdom of Wei, and thus to regain all the territory formerly
belonging to the Empire and bring it under the rule of the
Chinese. As a step toward the accomplishment of this purpose
he dispatched a large army to lay siege to the town of
Hsiang-yang situated on the Huai or Han River, in the modern
Province of Hupeh. He was anxious to take this city because he
considered it the key to the conquest of the Kingdom of Wei.
Finding it impossible to take the city by storm, the General in
cotnmand of the invading army resorted to the following plan.
He gave orders for an enormous dam to be constructed across the
river, intending by the obstruction of the waters to inundate the
city and the country round about, and in this way compel the
inhabitants to surrender. The soldiers of the invading army
labored on the building of the dam for two years. When it was
completed it was three miles^ long, twelve hundred feet high, and
A SKETCH OF CHIKBSS HISTORY. 55
had a breadth of 1,445 feet at the base and 450 feet at the top.
As soon as the work had been finished and the sluices closed, the
waters began to rise and soon threatened to overwhelm the city.
Just at this juncture, when there seemed to be no hope for the
besieged, an unexpected calamity occurred. The force of the
Tolume of accumulated waters proving too great, a part of
the dam was suddenly swept away, and the waters rushing
through the opening with tremendous force carried wide-
spread destruction in their course. Fifteen thousand of the
soldiers of Liang were caught in the flood and drowned.
Disheartened by this terrible disaster, the attempt to reduce the
city was abandoned and the army withdrawn.
The Down-fail of the Llangr Dynasty.
Wu Ti in the latter part of his reign becoming infatuated
with the doctrines of Buddhism, withdrew from his palace and
entered a Buddhist monastery (A.D. 528). Owing to his
fondness for the life of a recluse, the affairs of State were sadly
neglected, and as a consequence rebellions became rife throughout
the country, resulting finally in the downfall of his Dynasty.
The Ch'en Dynasty (A.D. 557-589).
The Ch^en Dynasty was established by Ch'Sn Pa-hsien, one
of the ministers of the former Dynasty, who compelled Ching Ti,
the last sovereign of the Liang Dynasty, to abdicate in his favor.
He took the Dynastic title of Wu Ti, and reigned for a period of
three years. It was at this time that a new power arose in the
North, the Kingdom of the Northern Chou. The Kingdom of Wei
had gradually lost its commanding position among the Northern
Tartar States, and the Northern Chou, by conquering and adding
to its dominions the territory of the Northern Ts'i (the modern
Shansi), came to be the most formidable rival of the Southern
Chinese Empire.
As none of the rulers of the Ch'fen Dynasty were men
of exceptional ability, the Dynasty never obtained a firm
footing.
$$ A fSKBTOH 07 frapOBSB H|0fOET.
At last Yang Obien, a Oeneral of dUtinguisI^ed desfsanty who
I^ad been in the employ of the NoFthem Chon, detennined to sei^e
th0 throne for himself. 9e first nsnrped the throne of Chon
and then captnred ijpte oity of Nanking, and led the la^t
Emperor of the Ch*£n Dynasty, Hou Chn, captive to Shensi
(A*D* 589). After distributing honors among his ancces&fnl
generals, he assumed the Imperial insignia, and established over
the whole country a new Dynasty, k nown as the Sui._
With the establishment of this Dynasty the first struggle
witb tb^ Tartars may be said to have come to an end. The whole
country was once more for a brief period united under the rule of
the Chinese.
/ The task of holding back the Northern tribes was, however,
too difficult a one for the Chinese to accomplish successfully, and
it was not long before the old strife between the Northern Tartars
and the Chinese was renewed.
4 SJ^BTOH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 57
DIVISION III.
The Second Struggle with the Tartars
(A.D. 589.1644).
CHAPTER X.
A Period of Reconsolidation (A.D. 589-907).
The Sui Dynasty (A.D. 589-619) and the T^ang
Dynasty (A.D. 620-907),
•Cao Tsu or Wen Ti (A-D. 589-605). ^
Yang Chien, after deposing Hon Chu, ascended the throne,^
taking the title of Kao Tsu or W^n Ti, and <;ave his Dynasty the /
title of 8ai, from the name of the dukedom which had beau
bestowed upon his father for services rendered to the Northern
Kingdom of Chou.
Although he had bpen in the employ of the Northern Tartar
Kingdom, he was a Chinese by birth, and thus once more the
Empire was brought under the rule of the Chinese. He proved
aB able Emperor, and his fame spread so far that envoys came
from the Turcoman tribes on the North to the Capital at Cb'ang-^n
in Shensi to pay their respects. They were much impressed with
the magnificence of his court and his great military power, and
carried back with them such glowing reports of what they
saw, that for a considerable time the Turcomans refrained from
disturbing the peace of the Empire.
^
r
58 A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
Pil8:rima|i:e to Tai Shan (A.D. 595).
lo the year 595, the country around the Capital was visited
by a severe famine, and a large part of the population was
compelled to emigrate to the territory now included in the modern
Province of Honan. The Emperor, believing that the calamity
was a manifestation of the wrath of Heaven on account of his own
misdeeds, made a pilgrimage to the T'ai Shan (Exalted Mountain)
in Shantung, and ascending to its summit, there confessed his
sins and prayed for forgiveness.
While the Emperor was absent from his Capital one of his
Generals caused to be built for him a magnificent palace known
as the Hall of " Long-Lived Benevolence." The Emperor upon
his return, instead of being gratified, expressed in the strongest
terms his disapproval of this needless expenditure and of the
cruelty resorted to in forcing the inhabitants of the famine district
to labor upon these huge buildings. This story is often quoted as
an evidence that the Emperor was of a merciful disposition and
had the good of his people at heart.
The Rebellion of Kuans: (A.D. 605).
Owing to the misdemeanor of the Crown Prince, Wen Ti
nominated his second son Kuang as heir-apparent, but in the latter
part of his life he re-appointed his first son Yung as his successor.
This led Kuang to raise a conspiracy against his father and elder
brother, and after murdering both he seized the throne for
himself. Thus Yang Chien, who had won the Empire by an act of
violence, lost it by a similar act on the part of one of his own sons.
Yana: TI (A.D. 605-617).
The usurper Kuang is known in history as Yang Ti. He was
a man of violent temper and gave himself up to extravagance and
debauchery, squandering large sums of money on his palace and
pleasure-grounds at Chi*ang-tu, the modern Yang-Chou. The trees
in his park are said to have been supplied in winter with flowers
and leaves of silk, and the birds of the district were almost ex-
terminated to provide sufficient down for his pillows and cushions.
A SKETCH OF OHmESK HISTORY. 5&
In order that he might make royal progresses thronghout his
dominions with greater convenience, he gave orders for the
constrnction of an extended system of canals, and on these when
they were completed, he made a journey from Lo-yang in Honan
to Nanking.
The Expedition a8:alnst Corea (A ,P, SISj ^.^^-*-^
When the Ruler of the chief State in Corea refused to pay the
customary tribute to the Chinese Empire, Yang Ti decided to send
an expedition, consisting of 305,000 men, to invade Liao-tung,
then included in the Kingdom of Corea. The army crossed the
River Liao and invested the Capital of Liao-tung. A great battle
was fought near the Yalu River, but contrary to the Emperor's
expectations the Chinese army was disastrously defeated. The
nnsnccessful generals, according to the custom usual in China
in such cases, paid the penalty for their inefficiency by forfeiting
their lives, and then the Emperor began preparations on a much
larger scale for another invasion of Corea. The expedition was
unpopular with the people and many protests against it were sent
to the Capital. One of his advisers tried to dissuade him from the
undertaking by saying, "You would never dream of using a
ballista of a thousand pounds weight to shoot a rat, and why should
you go to this great expense to subdue a country that is beneath
your notice." Yang Ti, however, refused to listen to advice, and
finally in the year 615 the expedition reached Corea. When the
army had occupied Sheng-king, envoys came from the King of
Corea promising submission, and agreeing that Corea should
henceforth be tributary to the Chinese Empire.
The Invasion of the Turcomans, and the Death of the
Emperor.
The news of the success of the expedition to Corea was
received by the Emperor with unbounded delight, and he
immediately set out on a luxurious tour throughout the Province
of Shensi. His rejoicing, however, was not destined to last long,
A
r
r
€0 A 8EBTCH OF OHINBSB HI8T0BY.
for news soon reached him of an invasion of the Turcomans from
the North and of their swooping down on the Province of Shansi
under the command of a chieftain named Shih-pi, to whom he had
^ven one of his daughters in marriage. The Emperor in his
attempt to oppose this incursion was surrounded and besieged in
the town of Yen-men in Shansi for nearly a month and very
nearly fell into the hands of his enemies. The latter were unaccus-
tomed to sieges, and when they found it impossible to entice the
Emperor out of his stronghold, or to take the city by storm, finally
abandoned the attempt and retired into their own territory.
The reign of Yang Ti came to an end through a rebellion
headed by one of his Generals named Li Yiian, who formed an
alliance with the Turcomans and soon became undisputed master
of a large part of the Empire.
Yang Ti was obliged to flee to Nanking, where he was
shortly afterwards assassinated. First one and then another of
his grandsons succeeded him. Both proving incompetent, Li-yiian
ascended the Imperial throne and established the Dynasty known
as the T*ang (A.D. 618-907).
The First Emperor of the T'ans: Dynastyi Kao Ten
(A.D. 618-627).
Li Yiian is known by his Imperial title of Kao Tsu. One of
his first acts was to encourage learning, and an edict which had
been issued by Yang Ti, abolishing the principal schools throughout
the Empire and retaining only the Imperial College at the
Capital, was rescinded. The task of pacifying the Empire was
sl difficult one, but Kao Tsu finally succeeded in subduing the
warring factions, and in arranging terms of peace with his former
fillies, the Turcomans. He established his Capital at Ch'ang-an in
Shensi.
Suppression of the Monasteries.
Perceiving that the Buddhist Bonzes and Nuns, by their
idle and vicious lives, were a source of danger to the country,
and having but little respect for the teachings of the religion
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORT. 61
irhieh they professed, he issued edicts for the suppression of many
of the monasteries throughout the Empire and ordered their
inmates to abandon their useless lives and engage in secular
occup ations.
The latter part of the Emperor's life was disturbed by
dissension in the Imperial family. He resigned the throna
in favor of his second son Li Shih-min, and this action roused
the jealousy of his other two sons and led them to engage in
a conspiracy to put the favored brother to death. Li Shih-min
to save his own life was compelled to anticipate their plot, and
destroyed both his brothers.
The Emperor T'al Tsuns: (A.D. 627-650).
Although Li Shih-min had committed fratricide to secure
the throne, he proveda wis^ and far-sighted Emperor, and stands
out in history a prominent figure against a background of weak
and inefficient rulers.
He took the Imperial title T'ai Tsung. His first great
achievement was a complete victory over the Turcomans, who,
led by two chieftains named Chieh Li and T'u Li, had invaded
Chinese territory. Fearing further incursions of this foe, he took
steps to strengthen his army and made important changes in
the method of warfare. The soldiers were supplied with longer
pikes and stronger bows, and the equipment and training of
the cavalry, a branch of military science which had been much
neglected by his predecessors, received careful attention.
T'ai Tsung was not a warrior by inclination so much as from
force of circumstances, and as soon as peace was secured he
applied himself to the encouragement of literature and learning.
Close by his palace, in his Capital, he built an enormous library
in which 200,000 volumes were collected. He was a most
enthusiastic disciple of the teachings of Confucius, and was fond
of holding discussions on the famous aphorisms of the great
Sage with his Ministers atid with the leading scholars of the
Empire. To him is attributed the saying, " Confucius is for the
62 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
Chinese what the water is for the fish." In the year 629 the
whole Empire was divided into ten provinces named Kuan-nei,
Ho-tang, Ho-nan, Ho-peh, Shan-nan, Lung-yu, Huai-nan,
Kiang-nan, Chieh-nan, and Ling-nan.
The Prestl8:e of the Chinese Empire.
The year 630 was a glorious one in the reign of T^ai Tsnng,
for in that year embassies from a great number of tributary
Kingdoms and States came to the Capital to pay their respects
and to offer their tribute ; and the great variety of languages
spoken by the envoys and the great diversity of their costumes
testified to the power and prestige of the Chinese Empire. About
this time there was also great rejoicing in the Empire on account
of a victory gained by the Chinese army over the Turcomans
which resulted in wresting from them a large part of their
territory. The possessions of the Turcomans were divided up
into ten departments over which Chinese magistrates were
appointed.
The Invasion of Corea.
In 645 T'ai Tsung led an army to invade Corea, at this time
composed of three kingdoms, Kao-li, Pai-chi, and Sin-lo. The
Emperor was led to take this step because a number of Chinese
taken prisoners in the expedition of Yang Ti had been forcibly
detained in Corea and prevented from returning to their own
country. The invasion of Corea was on the whole unsuccessful^
for the Emperor was foiled in his attempt to take the city of
An-shih, and was obliged to retire before completing the
subjugation of the country. Death overtook him while busy
with preparations for another expedition, and the throne came
to his ninth son, known in history as the Emperor Kao Tsung. ^
Kao Tsuna: (A.D. 650-684).
Kao Tsung after reigning a few years became enamoured of
the charms of one of the concubines in the harem of his father.
She had been removed from the close confinement to which the
wives of deceased Emperors are relegated, and the Emperor took
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 63
her for one of his own consorts. This woman, named Wu
HoUj^soon gained so complete a mastery over the Emperor
£Bat she became the virtual ruler of the Empire. Her ambition
had no limits, and she schemed to raise herself to the position
of Empress. This she accomplished by strangling a child she
had borne to the Emperor and causing the suspicion of its murder
to be cast upon the Empress. The Emperor, believing the
charges, deposed the Empress and elevated Wu Hou in her
place. After the success of her plot, one of the first acts
of this utterly unprincipled woman, was to put to death
with remorseless cruelty all whom she suspected of being
her enemies. She delighted in inventing barbarous tortures
for those whom she hated, and the story is told of her giving
orders that two of her enemies, after having their hands and feet
cut off, should be thrown into tubs of strong spirits and left there
until death put an end to their agonies.
When she had firmly established her position as Empress,
she caused the Emperor to promulgate a decree announcing that
henceforth he and she should be known as "The two Holy Ones."
Expedition to Corea (A.D. 667).
In 667 an expedition was sent to Corea, and the Capital
Ping-yang was closely invested until the defenders were forced
to capitulate and open their gates to the Chinese army. The
King of Corea was compelled to submit to the rule of the Twangs,
and his whole Kingdom was divided into five colonies, over which
Chinese and Native officials were appointed as joint rulers.
Battles with the Turfans.
"■- A few years later the Turfans, at that time the inhabitants
of Thibet, raised an immense force and became a menace to China.
A battle was fought with them at Ch'ing Hai, the Azure Sea,
otherwise known as Lake Kokonor, with the result that the Chinese
were defeated. After eight different engagements, however,
the Chinese finally succeeded in expelling the Turfans from the
64 A SKBTCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
territory of the Empire, and a check was placed to their further
encroachments.
When Kao Tsung died he left the throne to his son Chung
Tsung, but the Empress Dowager Wu Hou completely over-^
shadowed him and for the next twenty-one years held the reins of
government, the Emperor being confined in Fang-chou.
The Rule of the Empress Wu Hou (A.D. 634-705).
The Empress Wu Hou was not only the power behind the
throne, but openly assumed all its outward insignia, clothing^
herself in the Imperial robes, such as should be worn only by
the Emperor, and offering the Imperial sacrifices. She meditated
overthrowing the Dynasty and establishing a new one, and so
destroyed the Ancestral Tablets of Kao Tsung, and caused those
of her own family to be erected in their place. The many plot*
which were on foot to put an end to her tyranny were discovered
by her ubiquitous spies; and by banishing to the distant outskirts
of the Empire the principal Princes of the House of T'ang, she
succeeded in effectually disposing of all who were desirous of her
overthrow.
The Invasion of the Khiians.
Her reign was disturbed by an invasion of the Kbitans, a
Tartar tribe living in the North of Shensi, who had begun to
ravage and plunder the Northern, part of the Empire. It is
interesting^o^jQ^te,,-thjalJhfe_word^ Cathay, which in the Middle
Ages was used in Europe as the name of China, is derived from
the name of this tribe. The old name is still seen in the Russian
word for China, which is K'itai.
Reiiremeni of the Empress Wu Hou.
Owing to old age and enfeebled health the Empress Wu Hou
wias finally forced to resign, but even after she had ceased
to rule the wholesome dread with, which she was regarded led
to her being treated with marked respect ; a special palace
was built for her, and the title *' The Great aipd SaCred Empress '^
bestoWed upon her. In later ages Chinese historians, although
A 9]^BTCH OF 0HINB8B HISTORY. 65
admiring her great ability, came to regard h^r as one of the most
wicked of women, and as one whose memory should be held up
-to nniversal execration.
The Decline of the T'ans Dynasty.
After the time of the Empress Wu Hon the T*ang Dynasty
gradually sank to its fall. This was owing to many causes, among
which may be mentioned the weakness of the ruling Emperors,
ihe growing power of the Eunuchs of the Palace, the frequent
^civil rebellions, and the incursions of the Khitans.
We shall only attempt to give a summary of the more
important events of the closing period of the Dynasty.
(1.) During the reign of an Emperor called Hsiian Tsung
in A.D. 734 the Empire was divided into fifteen provinces or
circuits. These were the Ching Ch'i, Tu Ch'i, Kuan-nei, Ho-»nan,
Bo-tung, Ho-peh, Lung-yu, Shan-nan Tung, Shan-nan Hsi,
Chien-nan, Huei-nan, Kiang-nan Tung, Kiang-nan Hsi, Cl^ien-
xjhung, and Ling-nan. The Capital was at Ch*ang-an.
(2.) In the year 785 the famous Hanlin Academy was
established, composed of the highest scholars in the land. The
examinations for admission to this body were held once in three
years, and at each examination only the six candidates who
excelled in learning were admitted.
At this time also was instituted the Court Gazette, which
may be considered the oldest newspaper in the world. It was
issued for the purpose of giving publicity to the edicts promulgated
hj the Emperor.
(3.) In 765 a serious rebellion headed by a general of
Hsiung-nu descent, broke out, and during its progress the Capital,
•Ch*ang-an, and Lo-yang were captured from the Imperial forces.
The Emperor called in the assistance of one of the wild tribes,
the Ouigars, in order to suppress it, and held out to them the
inducement of a liberal reward. The consequence of the
-employment of these Nortliern Barbarians was to increase their
cupidity and to prepare the day when they would no longer be
6
f
f
t% A SKETCH OF CHIKESB HtSTOBT.
content to act as mercenaries, but, realizing their own strength,,
would attempt to seize the Empire for themselves.
By the help of the Ouigars the cities taken by the rebels were
recaptured, but only after a severe struggle, it being estimated
that during the rebellion the population of China sank from fifty
to less than twenty millions.
(4.) During the reign of the Emperor Hsi Tsung (A.D..
874-889) another formidable rebellion broke out, headed by a
general named Huang Ch*ao, and in order to suppress it the
Emperor entered into an alliance with the son of a Turcoman
chieftain named Li K*o-yung. The troops of this chieftain were
known as " the Black Crows." They carried on their warfare in
80 barbarous and cruel a manner that their opponents were struck
with fear and consternation and submitted with little opposition.
By their help the rebellion of Huang Ch'ao was quickly put
down.
(5.) The T'ang Dynasty came to an end in the usurpation
of the throne by a common adventurer named Chu Wen, a man
of no special talents or ability, who was able to force his way to
the front solely on account of the utter w^eakness of the reigning
Emperor and the prevalent disorder resulting from the division of
the Court into numerous hostile factions.
The Fame of the T'ans: dynasty.
The T'ang Dynasty had lasted altogether for 289 years, and
owing to the marked ability of its first Emperors, the prestige and
fame of China had increased many fold. The era is also specially
memorable as being an Augustan age of Chinese literature.
Among other great writers who lived at this time were the
celebrated poets Tu Fu and Li T*ai-po, whose poems are still
studied by all Chinese scholars and regarded as the models
for all writers of poetry to imitate.
It is also noteworthy as the time when Christianity was first
introduced into China Proper. The Nestorian Missionaries from-
Persia and Nepaul carried on an active propaganda in the
Northern part of the Empire, having entered China as earlj as
the year 506 in the reign of the Emperor T*ai Tsung. They
seem to have met for a time with considerable success, and a
striking evidence of this is found in a tablet, erected by Imperial
sanction, still standing near the city of Hsi-an Fu, upon which
is recorded an outline of the doctrines of theit Ohurcb.
As an evidence that the Chinese regard the T'ang Dynasty as
one of the most glorious periods of their history, we may refer ta
the fact that one of the names by which the Chinese «tiU otA
themselves is '' The Men of T'ang."
€8 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HI6TORT.
CHAPTER XL
The Epoch of the Five Dynasties (A.D. 907.960).
The Period of Military Despotism.
The Later Lians Dynasty (907-923).
After the fall of the T'ang Dynasty we come to a period
generally known as the Epoch of the Five Dynasties, deriving
its name from the fact that in the small space of fifty years
five ephemeral Dynasties followed one another in quick succession.
We may compare this period with that in Roman history, during
the decline of the Empire, when the Imperial power was in
the hands of the successful generals. Owing to the fact that
the Chinese had been so long engaged in war for the purpose of
suppressing civil revolutions or opposing the raids of the Tartar
tribes, the military leaders had become the most influential
men in the Empire, and so were tempted to make use of
their power to obtain the Imperial throne for themselves. Another
significant feature of the period is that just as the destruction
of the power of the Hsiung-nus by the House of Han had resulted
in paving the way for the attacks of other Tartar tribes, so
the overthrow of the Turcomans by the House of T'ang prepared
the way for the inroads of the Khitans. Of the five Dynasties
that so rapidly succeeded one another, three were of Turcoman
extraction.
The first of the Five is called the Later Liang Dynasty.
This was established by Chu-wen, who when he ascended the
throne took the Imperial title of T'ai Tsu. Although he claimed
to be Emperor over the whole of China, his sway was far
from being universally acknowledged. His principal adversary
A SKBTOH OF 0HINE8B BISTORT. 69
was a general named Li Ts^an-hsu, the son of Li K^o-ynng.
Eventually Li Ts'an-hsu overthrew the House of Liang and
established the second of the Five Dynasties,
The Later T^ans (A.D. 923-936).
Li Ts'un-hsu adopted the dynastic title of Chuang Tsung, and
called his Dynasty the Later T*ang. He made his Capital
in Weichou in the modern Province of Chihli. He was a great
warrior and was able to gain important victories over the Ehitans,
now rapidly becoming the most formidable enemy of the Empire*
His brother who succeeded him was an equally successful general^
but the reign of the latter is principally noted for the fact
that during it the art of block printing was invented by Feng
Tao, and the Nine Classics, by Imperial order, were printed
from wooden blocks (A.D. 932).
The Later Tsin (A.D. 936-951).
Shih Kung-t'ang, one of the generals of the Later T'ang,
formed an alliance with the Khitan chief, T6 Kuang, for the
purpose of destroying the ruling House and elevating himself
to the throne. He was successful in his attempt and established
the Dynasty known as the Later Tsin. Owing to the fact
that help had been received from the Khitans, the Emperors of
this short-lived Dynasty were completely subservient to those-
who had enabled them to obtain the throne, and were forced to
address the Khitan Chief as "Father."
The Later Hah (A.D. 947-951).
The Second Emperor of the Later Tsin, Ch4 Wang, made
a desperate attempt to throw off the yoke of bondage imposed
by the Khitans, and in consequence was carried off into captivity.
Liu Chih-yiian, taking advantage of the throne being vacant,
seized the opportunity of making himself Emperor, and established
the Later Han Dynasty. His Dynasty was in turn destined to
last only a few years, and then the Empire fell into the hands
of a general named Kuo Wei, who by his success in an expedition
against the Khitans had become very popular among the people.
Th0 l-»«9r Qhqu Dynasty (A,D. 961-ie«Q),
Tb^ Dynasty ^stmblisbed by KtiP Wei U kpowp as the Lftter
€hou. Daring its brief (J^riitioii QQofasion prevailed in th§
Empire. As no one seemed to bare any v^ry strong Qlairn^ tQ
ibe throne, the powerful generals of the arn^y struggled for
ij)e mastery, and looked upon the throne as the pri9e of riotoryt
JFinally Chap iK'uang-yin overcame all bia rivals, and raiding
Limself to the throne established the Sang Dynasty. Thas tb^^
period pf disunion was temporarily brenght to a ^lose, awd
a. large part of the Bmpire came again under the rale pf qqq
Emperpr.
A ^KETOH 07 CHm£S|( HISfOltT. 7%
CHAPTER XII.
The Division of th? Empire between the Kins
^Tartars) in the North and the Sungs (Chinese)
IN THE South (A.D. 960-1280).
The Emperor T'ai Tmu (A,D. 96Q-976),
The founder of the new Dynasty, Chao K'nangryin, adopted
the Dynastic title of T'ai Tsu. He was a native of the Northerly
part of the Empire, but was of Chinese descent. His Capital
was established at K^ai-f6ng Fu, in the Nprth-East of Honau
The great aim of T'ai Tsi| was the consolidation of thq Empire.
This was a difficult task to accomplish, for he had n^any rivs^Is,
chief among whom were the Prince of Han in thq North and
the Prince of T^ang in the South, In addition to his strpggle
to pvercome rebellious Chinese Pfin^es he was continually ^.t
war with the Khitans, who at this time had firnily estab^9h^(}
themselves in the Liao-tung Peninsula, and his ^iffi^^uH^es wi^r^
further increased by the Khit^ps fprrping an aggressive alliance
ynth the Prince of Han against the Empire.
One of the important reforms of his reign was the establish-
ment of a Board of Punishments at the Capital. Up to this time
the power of life and death had been in the hands of the Provincial
-officials, but after the appaintment of this Board, all capital
offences had first to be reported to the Central Government, and
the piinishment to be meted out was suggested by this Board
^nd finally determined by the Emperor. This took away from
the Provincial officials a power which they had Qnly too often
abused in their own interests.
7^ A 8KBTCH OF CHIMBSB BISTORT.
The Emperor T<al Tsunff (A.D. 976-998).
T^ai Tsung was the brother of the precedinpr Emperor..
Daring his reign the Empire once more became fairlj well united.
In the year 986 a great expedition was undertaken against tho
Khitans, who, as we have said, occupied at this time the Liao-tung
Peninsula, and were constantly encroaching on the domains-
of the King of Gorea. T^ai Tsung enlisted the help of the King
of Corea against them, and dispatched four separate armies into<
Liao-tung to effect their subjugation. Notwithstanding his great
preparations and the enormous effort put forth, the invasion was
unsuccessful, and his armies were driven out of the country*
Shortly after this a rebellion broke out in Ssuch'uan, caused hy
the misery of the people and their extreme poverty, which were
aggravated by the unscrupulous rapacity of the local magistrates.
During the reign of this Emperor the Empire was divided into
fifteen Provinces called the Ching-tung Tung, the Ching-tung
Hsi (both in Honan), Hopeh, Ho-tung, Shensi, Kuai-nan, Hu-nan,.
Hu-peh, Fo-kien, Kiang-nan, Ssiich'uan, Kuang-tung, Kuang-si,.
and the two Cheh-kiangs.
T*ai Tsung in the year 979 bestowed posthumous honors on
the descendants of Confucius for the past forty-four generations,
and exempted all the future . descendants of the Sage from
taxation, a privilege which they still enjoy.
Rise of the Kinfi^dom of Hsia.
During the reign of the Emperor Jen Tsung (A.D. 1023-
1064) a new foe to the Chinese Empire appeared. This was the
Kingdom of Hsia, which occupied the modern Province of Kansub
with some adjacent territory in Kokonor and the Desert of Gobi. ,
Chao-yiian, the Ruler of the Kingdom, was an ambitious
warrior, and, claiming to be a descendant of the Imperial line,
arrogated to himself the title of Emperor. He gathered together
a force of 150,000 fighting men, and began to make encroachments^
on the territory of the Chinese Emperor, which led to war between
the two countries. Thus the House of Sung was threatened by two
A 8KBT0H OF OHINBSB HISTORY. 73
formidable foes, the Khitans on the North-East and the Kingdom
of Hsia on the North- West. Being utterly unable to put forth
sufficient force to cope with the forces of the Kingdom of
Hsia, the Emperor was compelled to make terms and to agree
to pay an annual sum in gold and silver and a large
number of pieces of silk.
Encourafi^ement of Literature.
J^n Tsung possessed little military skill, but he was an
enlightened patron of literature and education. Schools were
opened in every district throughout the Empire, and every
advantage was given to those desirous of learning.
The period was adorned by many eminent scholars, among
whom was Ssu-ma-kuang, the writer of a celebrated history of
China consisting of 354 volumes, which tells the story of the
Empire from the Chou Dynasty to the close of the Epoch of the
Five Dynasties.
The Reforms of Wans: An-shih.
During the reign of Sh^n Tsung (A.D. 1068-1086) a famous
social reformer named Wang An-shih obtained great influence.
He proposed several very radical reforms in the methods of
taxation and the tenure of land, and he succeeded so well in
gaining the ear of the Emperor that the latter attempted to put
the new ideas into practice.
The principal reforms proposed by hira were the following : —
(a.) The Nationalization of the Commerce of the Empire. —
The taxes were to be paid in the produce of the land and in
manufactured commodities, and the surplus products and
commodities were to be purchased by the Government, which
would afterward transport them to the dificrent parts of the
Empire where they were in demand, and sell them at a
reasonable rate of profit. This reform was intended to do away
with the oppression of the rich, who bought from the poor at as
low rates as possible and, gaining control of the market, sold at
exorbitant prices.
74 A 9KBT0H OF OHIirBfiy p|9T0||T,
(b.) State Advances for tin CuUivatipn of the Soil. — It w^s
proposed that the Qovernment should ady^pce papital to the poor
ff^rmers, to be repaid after the baryestis, ia the sii^th and tent^
months, and that the rat^ of interest for such loans should be
two per cent per mpnth.
(c.) The Militia Enrollment Act. — It was propos0d to divide
the people of the whole Empire into divisions consisting of ten
families, with a head man appointed over each ten families.
Every fifty families was to be under a head man of higher rank,
and every five hundred families under one of still higher rank.
Every family with more than one son was bound to give one foF
the service of the State. In times ef peaee these men could
pursue their ordinary vocations, but in time of war, when danger
threatened the country, they would be called to arms by their
head men and must be ready to repair at once to the seat of war.
(d.) The Imposition of an Income Tax for the Construction
of Public Works. — Up to this time^ Public Works had been
constructed by compulsory labor, but it was now suggested that
a census of the people should be taken, and that a tax should
be levied upon each family according to its income. Great
difficulty was experienced in ascertaining the incomes of the
people, and this proposal met with most violent opposition.
This paternal or socialistic form of government was given
a trial by the Emperor, but as has so often proved the case in
similar attempts it did not meet with the success that its proposers
anticipated, and in a short time all these laws were abrogated.
It is curious to note, as an evidence of the conservatism
af the Chinese people, that the name of Wang An-shih has
generally been treated with contempt by the historians of
China, and that .his economic theories have been looked upon as
dangerous and destructive innovations.
Rise of the Kins (A.D. 1111).
The year A.D, 1111 was a very important one in the history
of China, for it is marked by the rise of the power which
iij41reotly wm to brinpr aljoiit the ^somplete conquest of tbn
Eoapire by the Mongols. To the North of the Khitans lived.
:i^ tribe known as the Kins or the Nii-Ch^a Tartars, Originally
they had been Babservient to the great Khitan chief Apaoki, bat
«s the Kbitans decUaed in strength the Kins asserted tht^f
independence, and in 1125 they completely overpowered their
former rulers. Their chief Akuta took the title ^^ Grand Khan/'
or Emperor, and called his Dynasty the Kin» meaning " golden,"
:and hence they are often referred to as the ^^ golden horde.''
The followipg is ^ description of their method of warfare^
They fought on horse-back, and divided their forces into companies
of fifty men. In each company twenty men, clad in strong
<5uirasses, and armed with short swords and pikes, took up their
position in the front rank. The remaining thirty who composed
the rear rapk wore less weighty armor, and had for their weapons
bows, arrows, and javelin^. In battle each company advanced
with their horses at a gentle trot until within a few hundred yards
of the enemy. Then increasing their speed they advanced within
striking distance, discharged their bows and cast their javelins,
«nd retired with the utmost celerity. They repeated these taetiiss
several times until they succeeded in throwing the ranks of the
enemy into confusion, and then, falling upon them with sword and
pike, they were generally able to put them to rout.
The Kins attack the Chinese igmpire (A.D, 1126).
In A.Pi ll!!{5 the Kins, having vanquished the Khitans, made
4n ^dv^nee pn the Chinese Empire. As they approached th(9
Capital, KaUffeng FuJ^the Emperor of the Sungs, Hni Tsung, fled
to Nanking, le;^ving his son to bear the brunt of the coming
conflict. The Utter being unable tp hold the Capital was forqed
to capitulate and to agree to ignominious terms of peace, Th^
Chinese promised to pay their conquerors flve million ounces of
gold, fifty million ounces of silver, ten thousand 02ien, an eq^al
Dumber of horses, and one million pieces of silk. The Kin ruler
was to be allowed to assume the title of Khan or Emperor,
U : ,
\ ^ w
76 A SKBTCH OF CHINK8B HISTORT.
portions of modern Shansi and Chihli were to be ceded to hiniy
and the brother of the Chinese Emperor, Prince K*ang, was to be
delivered up as a hostage. As soon as the forces of the Kins had
been withdrawn from the Capital, the Chinese repented of the^
bargain they had been compelled to make, and in order to avoid
paying the large indemnity determined to renew the contest. As
soon as the Kins heard that hostile preparations were on foot, they
returned in large force, crossed the Yellow River, and again
invested Kai-fSng Fu. The Emperor Hui Tsung perceiving that
resistance was useless, bowed to the inevitable and surrendered
himself up into the hands of the Kin general, Kuan Li-pu. Th&
latter now increased his former demands, and called upon the-
Chinese to pay ten million ingots of gold, twenty million ingots
of silver, each containing ten ounces, and ten million pieces of
silk. Ho-tung and Ho-peh as well as modern Shansi and Chihli
were to be ceded. The Emperor, the Empress, and the Imperial
household were carried away into captivity, and the Kin&
appointed a new Emperor to rule as their vassal over the Chinese^
Empire.
The Character of the Succeeditifi: Period.
We now come to a period when the Chinese Empire proper
is confined to the Provinces South of the Yangtsze River, with the^
Capital at Nanking. All the Northern Provinces were in the
possession of the Tartars, the Kins.
Between the Northern and Southern Empires a continuous
struggle took place, the Chinese striving to regain what had been
lost and to drive out the Kins, and the Kins trying to effect the
complete conquest of the whole Empire. Owing to the great
tenacity of the Chinese, the Kins were thwarted in their attempts,
and the completion of the conquest of China remained to be
accomplished by another Tartar tribe, the Mongols.
The Emperor Kao Tsuns: (A.D. 1127-1163).
The brother of the captive Emperor, who had escaped falling^
into the hands of the Kins, established a new Capital at Nanking,
A SKETCH OV OHINBSB HISTORY. 77
and, ascending the vacant throne with the Imperial title of Kab
Tsung, continued the Dynasty thereafter known as the Southern
Sung. The whole of his reign was occupied with the struggle
ip^ith the Kins, The great contention between the Northern and
Southern Empires was for the possession of the modern Province
-of Honan. Kao Tsung had in his employ several generals who
fought with skill and bravery, and the fortune of war declared
itself now on one side and now on the other. The Kins were
xinaccustomed to fighting on water and thus were unable to effect a
-successful crossing of the Yangtsze, and the Great River
Tcmained the barrier between the North and the South. If Kao
Tsung himself had shown greater energy he might have delivered
Tiis country from the grasp of the Kins, but he was timid in
ibllowing up the successes of his generals and allowed many
opportunities to slip from his grasp. One of his generals named
Tsung Tsfe held Kai-f^.ng Fu for a considerable period, and as
•many as twenty times sent urgent messages to the Emperor,
imploring him to abandon Nanking and to return to the old
'Capital, but to all these entreaties the Emperor turned a deaf ear.
"When Tsung Tsd was dying, his last words are said to have been
'" Cross the River, Cross the River," for he firmly believed that
if the Emperor would only heed his advice, cross the Yangtsze
and advance to the North, a complete victory might be secured
And the Kins expelled from China.
The constant raids of the Kins wrought great havoc in the
Southern Empire. They devastated the Province of Shantung,
and passing through it took Yangchou and Hangchou, and at
•one time almost succeeded in taking the Emperor captive. He
only managed to save himself from this fate by a precipitate flight
southward to Wenchou. Thither he was pursued, and was
compelled to cross an arm of the sea in a boat and take
refuge in one of the islands of the Taichou group. When the
Xins attempted to follow him, their fleet met with a disastrous
defeat, and they were forced to retire.
76 A SEBTOH OF CHINSSB HISTORT«
The RIM Ol" the MonffOis (A.D. 1135).
In the year A.D. 1135 the Mongols made their appearande^
on the Northern frontiers of the territory ruled over by the Kins^
and began the conflict which was to result in the destruotioit
of the Kins and the subjugation of the Chinese Empire.
The original home of the Mongols, whose name signifies^
** brave men," was in the strip of territory between the Onon and
Kerulon Rivers, along the upper courses of the Amour, in the^
district South-East of Lake Baikal. They were probably related
by blood to the Hsiung-nu, and if this be so then Genghis, the
great conqueror, and Attila, the " scourge of God/' belonged to-
the same race.
The Mongol chieftain Kabul Khan was the first to assume
the title '' Grand Khan " or " Grand Emperor," and to begin the
conflict with the Kins.
Genghis Khan (A.D. 1162).
It was probably in A.D. 1162 tbat Genghis, or as he was first
called Temuchin, was born. At the age of thirteen he succeeded
his father as head of the Mongols. At first many of the tribes^
refused to acknowledge him as their lord, but his mother, a woman
of great determination, displayed the national ensign of the
Mongols, the ox tail, and rallied around her son about one half
of the tribes composing the Mongol confederacy.
As the boy grew up to manhood he exhibited qualities that
proved he was entitled to the position he had inherited, and
after distinguishing himself in numerous battles, he was in 1206-
proclaimed Genghis Khan, that is. Most Mighty Khan, at a great
meeting of the Mongol Confederacy on the banks of the Onoa
River, After subduing all his enemies at home, Genghis resolved
to extend his dominions towards the East. First he annexed the
Kingdom of Hsia, and then breaking through the Great Wall he
overran the modern Provinces of Chihli and Shansi, and penetrated
with little opposition to the Liao-tung Peninsula, the Kins being
unable to ofier any serious resistance to his progress.
A iSkBfdH OF €l&lNfi8E filStORT. t^
Conquest of Eastern Asia.
In 1213 three expeditions were simultaneously dispatched for
the purpose of oonqtiering Eastern Asia, the first under Genghis
himself, the second under his sons, and the third under his
brothers. All three werd completely successful, and the one
commanded by the great conqueror himself marched in triumph to
the treeless hills of the Shantung Promontory^ and halted not far
from the site of the niodern Wei-hai-wei. After concluding peace
with the Kins on condition of their paying tribute to him, he
returned to Karakoram, the old Capital of the Mongol Confederacy..
Expedition to the West.
Expeditions were sent out for the conquest of "Western
Asia. With marvellous rapidity they overran Kashgar,
Tarkaud) and Khoton, pierced the mountain passes of the
Himalayas, won a great victory on the banks of the Indus,
conquered Georgia, and finally penetrated into Eastern Europe«^
At that time Russia consisted of many semi-independent States,.
whose rulers, though under the common suzerainty of the Grand
Prince or Czar^ were constantly at war with one another. On
account of internal disunion they were in no position to withstand
a foreign invasion, and a force hastily collected to oppose the
sudden and unexpected attack of the Mongols was easily routed,
and the Russians were forced to pay tribute. All the cities
conquered by the armies of Genghis were completely razed to the
ground, and the conqueror made the boast "that he could ride
over their sites without meeting an obstacle large enough to make
his horse stumble." Genghis Khan may rightly be considered
one of the greatest conquerors the world has ever seen, and may
justly; be ranked with Alexander the Great, Hannibal, and Julius^
Caesar. He manifested much skill in directing the movements of
large armies over enormous distances, and displayed great military
genius in the way he conducted his expeditions.
One of the important results of this great outpouring of the
Mongols into Western Asia which should not be overlooked, was
80 A 8KBT0H OF CHINBSB HISTOKT.
that for some time it put a check on the spread of Mohammedanism
into Eastern Asia. Hindered from spreading in this direction tho
followers of the Prophet were diverted to the West and began
their inroads on Southern Europe.
During the reign of Genghis, for the first time, Roman
Oatholic Missionaries obtained an entrance into Mongolia. From
them we get an interesting account of the Chinese they met at the
Mongol Capital, Karakoram. They describe the Chinese "as
first-rate artists, and state that their physicians have a thorough
knowledge of the virtue of herbs, an admirable skill in
diagnosis by examining the pulse; that the common money of
Cathay consisted of pieces of paper made of cotton about a palm in
length and breadth, and that the Chinese wrote with a brush such
as artists use." These few lines give us an early account of some
of the features of Chinese civilization as it appeared to outsiders.
The Conquests of Offotai (A.D. 1220-1246). ,
Genghis Khan was succeeded in 1229 by his son Ogotai who
went on with the career of conquest begun by his father. He
completed the subjugation of the Kins, and annexed all the
territory within the Eastern bend of the Yellow Biver. The last
stronghold of the Kins to be taken was the city of Kai-feng Fu in
1234, and after the capture of this place the Kins sank into
insignificance. In all, nine Emperors of the Kins had ruled over
the Northern part of China, and had held the supreme power over
one-half of the Empire for a space of one hundred and eighteen
years. Ogotai, like his father, also conducted an expedition into the
West which carried pillage and slaughter into the very heart of
Europe. Biazin, Moscow, Vladimir, Kieve, and many other cities
of Bussia were captured and utterly destroyed, and their inhabitants
put to the sword. At Vladimir the whole Imperial family perished
amid the flames of the burning cathedral. Hungary and Poland
were also invaded, and although a brave resistance was made it
was impossible for the people of these countries to withstand the
inroads of the savage Mongol hordes. Pesth, Gran, and Cracpw
A SKETCH OF GBINBSE HISTORY; 81;
were razed to the grouad, and other flourishing cities vrere,
destroyed. In Silesia the further progress of the Mongols wa».
stayed by the arrival of news that the Great Khan, Ogotai, in a
riotons debauch in his palace had drunk himself to death.
According to the established custom of the Mongols it was then
necessary for the Mongol Generals to return, with as little delay.
as possible, to the Capital at Karakoram.
The Begflnnlns of the Contest between the Monsole ^y
and the Chinese. 'f
During the last stages of the conflict between the Mongols
and the Kins, the Emperor of the Southern Sung Dynasty, Li
Tsung (1125-1265) had entered into an alliance with the Mongol
chief. He was led to take this step on account of his inveterate
hatred for his old foes the Kins, and be hailed with joy this
opportunity of helping to bring about their overthrow, not
perceiving in his shortsightedness that by so doing he was
hurrying on apace the fate of his own country.
The Chinese, after having rendered assistance to the Mongols,
considered that they were entitled to a share in the spoils, and
forthwith proceeded to occupy their old Capital K'ai-feng Fu,
and the city of Lo-yang. This policy was not at all in accord
-with the designs of the Mongols, who at once ordered them to
evacuate the Province of Honan. Upon the Chinese refusing to
do so, war was declared, and it soon became apparent that the
Mongols had only used the Chinese as the proverbial cat's paw
for forwarding their own plans and had never intended that they
should extend their own possessions.
The Conquests of Kublal Khan.
When Mangu became Khan of the Mongols in the year
1253, he with his brother Kublai at once began the conquest of
China in earnest. First they rapidly overran the Northern
Provinces and then advanced into Ssuch'uan. Before the
campaign had been finished Mangu died and left to his brother
7
82 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
Kublai the task of completing the subjugation of the whole
country.
The plan adopted by the Mongols was to advance to the
South and conquer Yunnan, for they hoped in this way to be
able to attack the Chinese from both the North and the South,
and to surround them by hostile forces. Kublai leaving the
command of the expedition to one of his generals, returned to the
North, and at a council of the' Mongols, held near the modern
Peking, was elected Grand Khan. He fixed his Capital at
Cambuluc, near the site of the present Peking, the name Cumbuluc
signifying the City of the Khan.
The conflict with the Sungs was carried on with much energy.
Their Emperor Li Tsung, who had at first agreed to become the
vassal of the Mongol Khan, afterwards assumed a dpfiant attitude,
and put to death the envoys . of the Mongol court sent to
announce the accession of Kublai as Grand Khan.
The important city of Hsiang-yang in Hupeh on the Han
or Huai River was invested by the Mongols. The siege lasted a
long time but finally by the usp of engines of war brought from
Persia, which could throw stones weighing more than 150 pounds,
the walls of the sister city, Fan-ching, on the opposite side
of the river, were breached, and then the fortifications of
Hsiang-yang were battered down, and the city entered by the
Mongols and given up to pillage. The Mongol army, under the
command of a general named Bayan captured city after city
in rapid succession. Han-yang, Hankou, Wuchang, and Soochou
fell into the hands of the invaders, and in 1276, Hangchou,
which had become the Capital of the Southern Sungs, was taken,
and the young Emperor, Kung Ti, along with his mother, was
sent as a prisoner to Cambuluc^.
The brother of Kung Ti, Tuan Tsung, escaped capture by
fleeing to Foochou in the modern Province of Fuhkien, and there
set up the Capital of the tottering Dynasty. The cause of the
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORT, 83
Songs became, however, more and more desperate, and the
advancing Mongols carried everything before them. When they
overran Fuhkien and Kiangsi, the Emperor fled by sea to
Tung-an, in Kuangtung. While travelling toward the South, the
ship on which he was carried encountered a violent storm, and was
wrecked. The Emperor himself barely escaped being drowned,
and after reaching the island of Kangchou died from the effects •
of the exposure.
The Downfall of the Sun£^ Dynasty.
The Chinese continued their desperate resistance, and
placed upon the throne Ping Ti (1278-1280), the last of the
brothers of Kung Ti. In order to make their position more secure
they removed their Capital from the island of Kangchou to the^
island of Yaishan. The Capital was on the sea-coast and possessed
a large and commodious harbor. This harbor was blockaded
by the fleet of the Mongols, and in a short time the Chinese were
reduced to great straits for want of food and water. When every
attempt to break through the blockade had failed, and it was
impossible to hold out longer, the Emperor and all the Imperial
family committed suicide by casting themselves into the sea. A
few of the Chinese generals still carried on the struggle, but were
soon forced to submit, and the Sung D ynasty peri shed, after \
running a course of thr eeSb Hidrcd ^ggftwen ty years. ^\^l -
ThnSThe conquest of China by the Mongols was completed.
It had taken more than half a century to accomplish, and of all
the Mongol triumphs it may be considered the greatest. The
Chinese had carried on the struggle with much persistency, and,
although handicapped by the inefficiency of their generals,
-exhibited thei r characteristic tenacity , and grjolongfid the conflict
long after other races would have yielded.
84 A BKSTOB OF CHINESE BISTORT.
CHAPTER XIII.
The Yuan Dynasty A.D. 1280- 1368.
Complete Domination of the Mongols.
Th9 R^ll^n of Kubial Khan (1280-1295).
When Kublai Khan became the ruler of the whole of China^
he chose as the title of the newly established Dynasty the word
Ytign » which n^eans ** original/* indicating that he instituted an.
entirely new regime.. He took the Dynastic title of Shih Tso, and
fixed his Capital at Camhulne, or Peking,
It was natural that he should soon become more Emperor of
China than Khan of the Mongols. He adopted a conciliatory
attitude towards the Chinese, imitating their customs, supporting
their institutions, and patronising their literature ; and we are once
more furnished with a striking example of the conquerors adopting
the civilization of the conquered. A magnificent Court was.
maintained and an elaborate postal system established, and the
country enjoyed a prosperity which it had not known for a long
time. The Chinese settled down quietly, and trade and
industry flourished to such an extent that they became somewhat
reconciled to being ruled by foreigners.
In regard to religion the Emperor exhibited toleration, or
rather ecclecticism. He was kindly disposed toward Christianity,
Buddhism, and Mohammedanism, and allowed complete liberty to
the followers of these faiths. He was antagonistic to Taoism, and
regarding its magical rites and superstitious practices as injurious
to the people, gave orders that all the Taoist literature, with the-
exception of the Tao T6h Chingy should be burnt.
A SKSTCH or CHIKBSB fllSTORY. 85
Attempts at Further Oonquests.
Although Knblai was already ruler over a more extensive
domain than had ever before acknowledged the sway of any one
man, his thirst for conquest, was still unsatiated, and he made
attempts at further conquests which, however, only met with a
modicum of success.
Corea was gained over by conciliatory methods, but the
Japanese, when he wished them to regard him as their over lord,
indignantly refused to be subjected to a foreign power. An
expedition which was fitted out against them, consisting of Chinese
and Corean soldiers, was disastrously defeated at Tsushima, an
island situated between Uorea and Kiusiu. Later, an enormous
fleet manned by Mongols, Chinese, and Coreans was sent to invade
Kiusiu, but a large part of it was destroyed by storm, and the
remnant was captured by the Japanese, who spared the lives of
the Corean and Chinese prisoners but killed all the Mongols.
This defeat proved that the Mongols though generally successful
on land were still lacking in skill in naval warfare, and on the sea
were no match for the Japanese.
Expedition against Cambodia.
Kublai also sent an expedition against Cambodia, which
had revolted and thrown off its allegiance to the Chinese Empire.
The invading army, attempting to pass through the territory of the
•King of Annam, nominally a vassal State, was vigorously opposed
by the Annamites, and the Mongols suffered much on the march
from the extreme heat to which they were exposed.
This was to them all the more trying as they were accustomed
to the rigorous climate of their Northern home. Although
they finally broke down the resistance of the Annamites, they
made but little progress against the Cambodians, and at last, owing
to their army being much weakened by loss from sickness, were
forced to retire. Annam remained nominally a tribute State of
China, but it retained a semi-independence until in our own day
it became a dependency of the French Republic.
r
86 A SKETCH OF CHINESB HISTOET.
Campaign a^^ainst Burmah.
A campaign against Bnrmah proved more suecessfal. The
canse of the war was ihe nsnal one — the refusal to pay tribnte
to the Great Emperor. The Burmese strenuously resisted the
inTasion, and as they employed elephants as engines of war, the
Mongols, unaccustomed to this method of warfare, were at first
taken at a great dii*advantage.
In the battle the Mongol archers by discharging a storm of
arrows caused the elephants to stampede and to' turn about and
break through the lines of the Burmese. Seizing the opportunity-
offered by the confusion in their enemies' ranks, the Mongols then
made a fierce onslaught and won a glorious victory.
The Visit of^ IMarco Polo (A.D. 1271).
During the reign of Kublai a visit was paid to Mongolia and
China by the great Venetian traveller Marco Polo. He arrived
in the year 1271 and resided in the Chinese Empire for seventeen
years. He travelled as a commissioner of the Emperor through
the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, Ssuch'uan, and Yunnan, and wag
appointed to a high official position in the civil government
in the province of Chehkiang. After his long sojourn in the
Chinese Empire he was sent to Persia as an escort to a Mongol
Princess who had been presented by Kublai as a consort
to the Persian Khan. After accomplishing his mission he returned
to Venice, bringing to the people of Europe much interesting
information in regard to China, and giving them their first
real knowledge of what up to that time had been to the West a
terra incognita.
The ConstrMCtion of the imperial Canal.
Besides his warlike expeditions Kublai sent out many
peaceful missions to various countries, including it is said even
so remote a country as Madagascar.
Of the Public Works carried out by this Emperor the
principal one was the reconstruction of the Imperial Grand Canal
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 87
between Hangebou ^and Tientsin. It is about a tbousand miles
long and still forms one of tbe chief waterways of tbe Empire.
The Extent of the Empire.
Under Kublai Khan tbe Chinese Empire became one of the
largest of which we have any record in history. It counted as its
subjects the immense population occupying the vast territories
which stretch from the Black Sea to the shores of the Yellow Sea,
and from Northern Mongolia to the frontiers of Annam.
The Successors of Kublai Khan.
In 1294 the Great Khan died, and, as has been the case
with so many of the world's mighty conquerors, no one was found
capable of preserving what he had acquired. Gradually the
Mongols became assimilated with the Chinese, and as they came
more completely under the influence of Chinese civilization they
lost much of their original martial vigor, and their own identity
disappeared among those whom they had conquered. As has been
well said, *' China is a sea that salts all the waters that flow
into it."
Kublai was succeeded in 1295 by his grandson Temur, who
was known as Ch'eng Tsung. During his reign, floods, famines,
and earthquakes occurred in different parts of the Empire,
rendering the people wretched, discontented, and inclined to
rebellion. Under the Emperor JSn Tsung (1312-1321), who was
both a scholarly and humane ruler, the Hanlin (the Forest of
Pencils) was again restored, and the highest offices in the Empire
were bestowed on those obtaining the third degree of Chin-
Shih in the Imperial Examinations.
During the latter part of the Yiian Dynasty rebellions
became more frequent, and numerous secret societies sprang
up, having as their object insurrection against the Mongol
government. The most famous of these was the " White Lily
Society."
A famous pirate chief named Fang Kuo-ch6n (1348)
ravaged the Southern coasts of China. Every effort was
88 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
inade by the governmeiit to pacify him, and at times bribes and
offers of official employment were employed to induce him to give
up his depredations. He preferred however his piratical trade,
and became so powerful that he even meditated seizing the throne
for himself.
The Rise of Chii Yuan-chans: (A.D. 1356)«
Among the chieftains of the numerous bands of rebels
was one named (^hu Yiian-chang, who afterwards became the
founder of the Ming Dynasty. The story of his early life is
as follows. He came from a town in the north east of the
Province of Anhui. When a young man all the other members
of his family had been carried off by a pestilence, and, acting on
the impulse of grief, he entered a Buddhist Monastery. Here he
resided in seclusion for several years, bat afterwards, impelled
by his sympathy with the national uprising against the Mongols,
he put oft' his priest's robes and enrolled himself as a follower of
one of the leaders of rebellion. In a short time he proved that be
possessed the qualities of a successful general and was promoted
to be the chief of one of the insurgent bands.
The Downfall of the Yiian Dynasty.
Shun Ti (1333) was the last of the Emperors of the Yiian
Dynasty. He was weak in character and fell under the influence
of an unscrupulous and ambitious Prime Minister. He did
nothing to propitiate tlie growing discontent of the Chinese
people, but on the contrary resorted to many measures which only
further exasperated them. One of these unpopular measures was
an attempt to shift the course of the Yellow River so as to make
its waters empty themselves farther North, in the Gulf of Pechihli.
Notwithstanding the protests of many of his advisers, he insisted
on having the work undertaken, and 170,000 men were employed
in digging the new canal in the Province of Shantung. The work,
which was carried on for six months, greatly impoverished the
people owing to the heavy taxes they were forced to pay-
A SKttTCH OF CHINBSB HlfirTORY. 89
w
Daring the latter part of the reign of Shun Ti, Chu
Yiian-chang, after overcoming most of the other rebel chieftains,
fieized Nanking and made it his Capital. His sncoess was popular
with the people, wlio regarded him not so much as a robber
-cliieftain seeking his own advantage as a possible deliverer from
the rule of the Mongols. Even the pirate chief Fang Kuo-chSn
submitted to him and became his ally.
Shun Ti was strangely apathetic in the face of all his dangers,
^nd was incapable of putting forth any strenuous eflForts to meet
his foes.
In addition to the danger arising from the rebellion having
Nanking as its centre, the Tartar tribes were menacing the
Empire from the North, and gradually the Emperor found
himself hemmed in on all sides in his Capital at Peking.
Disunion among tlie Mongol princes themselves, caused by trouble
fomented by the heir-apparent to the throne, prevented their
presenting a united front to their common foes.
The forces of Chu Yiian-chang were everywhere victorious,
and one of his generals succeeded in capturing the city of
Kai-feng Fu. After this place had fallen Chu Yiian-chang
determined to make himself Emperor and to establish a new
Dynasty. He chose for the title of the new Dynasty the name
"Ming," meaning the "Brilliant Dynasty," and took for himself
the Imperial title of T^ai Tsu. Peking, which was still in the
hands of the Mongols, was closely invested. The Emperor Shun
Ti, to avoid falling into the hands of the Chinese, tied back to his
ancestral home in Mongolia. When Peking fell, T'ai Tsu gave
-orders that there should be no unnecessary slaughter, and in this
way won a name for being merciful to his enemies.
Thus came to an end the Yiian Dynasty. We can only
account for the fact that it succumbed so quickly on the ground
that after the time of Kublai the Mongols had never been popular
^nd had forfeited the good- will of the people. The Northerners,
90 A SKBTCH OF CHINBSB BISTORT.
#
Tinaccustomed to luxury while living on their wild steppes in
Mongolia, became enervated and effeminate as soon as they
accepted Chinese civilization, and thus lost the bold, intrepid spirit
which had made their forefathers such invincible warriors.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 91
CHAPTER XIV.
China under the Chinese.
The Restoration of a Chinese Dynasty, The Ming
(A.D. 1 368- 1 644).
The Emperor T'al Tsm (A.D. 1368-1390).
Chu Yiian-chang, or T'ai Tsu, is more commonly known by
the title of his reign as Hung Wu. After ascending the throne
he constituted Nanking his Southern and Kai Feng Fu his
Northern Capital. When he had secured firm possession of the
Empire he showed himself a wise ruler as well as an able general.
He encouraged education by establishing schools in all cities and
towns, and took the Hanlin Academy under his special protection^
He also caused the laws of the country to be codified, and in
many ways promoted the practical administration of justice in
the local courts.
His generals Suta and Fuyuta gained important victories over
the Monojols in the North, and the Provinces of Shansi, Shensi,
Kansuh, Ssuch'uan, and Yiinnan were reduced to order, and tho
boundaries of the Empire secured.
As a ruler he was frugal in expenditure, and discountenanced
extravagance, attributing the downfall of the Mongol Dynasty
to the fact that its rulers had been heedless of the wants of the-
people and had recklessly wasted the public revenues. A lofty
tower in Peking, erected by one of the Emperors of the Yuan
Dynasty, was, by his orders, razed to the ground as a protest
against squandering money for useless purposes.
92 A SXXTCH OF CHIKRSB HISTORT.
During the latter part of his reign the whole Empire enjoyed
the blessing of peace. Amicable relations vrere established with
the King of Corea, and the Burmese were forced to submit
^nd pay tribute.
It is estimated that at this time the population of China rose
io sixty millions.
At the close of his reign the Emperor T'ai Tsu appointed his
grandson to succeed him, and left orders that none of his own sons
should be allowed to attend his funeral. The reason for this
strange injunction was to guard against their taking occasion while
at the Capital to create disturbance and plunge the country into
<5ivil strife.
Hiii Ti (A.D. 1300-1403).
Hui Ti, the grandson of T'ai Tsu, was sixteen years of age
when he ascended the throne. His uncle, the Prince of Yen, son of
the late Emperor, contrary to the express wish of his father,
presented himself at the Capital and attended the Imperial
funeral. Upon retiring he immediately declared rebellion and
raised a large force for the purpose of attacking Hui Ti and
making himself Emperor. His soldiers were everywhere
victorious and Nanking fell before their assault. Upon entering
this city search was made for Hui Ti, and finally a charred
corpse was produced and declared to be the remains of the
Emperpr. The Prince of Yen gave orders that it should be
accorded an Imperial funeral, and then, considering the throne
to be vacant, he seized the Imperial power. The production of the
corpse, however, had only been a ruse on the part of the Emperor's
adherents, and Hui Ti, in the disguise of a Buddhist monk,
made his escape from the city and fled to Ssiich'uan. There he
remained in seclusion in a monastery for forty years. He was
afterward discovered, from some expressions used by him in a
poem, and then he was induced to come forth and play a part once
more on the stage of public life.
A 8KST0H OF GHINBSB HISTORT. 93'
The Usurpation of Prince Yen.
Prince Yen after usurping the throne took the Dynastic titlo^
of Ch*eng Tsu, the title of his reign being Yung lA (A.D.
1403-1425). Daring his reign there was peace within the borders
of the Empire, but the Emperor was called upon to suppress a civil
revolution in Tong King which resulted in its being annexed to
China. During the reign of the succeeding Emperor tho
government of Tong King was entrusted to native officials, and the
Chinese Empire only retained the right of overlordship, and of
exacting a yearly tribute.
In A.D. 1421, in spite of the opposition manifested by the
people, the Emperor removed his Capital to Peking.
Ch'eng Tsu was much interested in literary matters, and
appointed a commission of scholars to compile an exhaustive
encyclopedia. The work was completed in the year 1407, and
contains 22,877 volumes and a table of contents occupying 60-
books. It may rightly be considered as one of the great literary
monuments of China.
Inroads of tiie Monf^ols.
During the reign of the Emperor Ying Tsung (A.D.
1436-1450) the Empire suffered severely from an invasion of the
Mongols led by a chieftain named Yeh-hsien. At this time the
Emperor was completely under the control of the chief of the
Court Eunuchs, named Wang Chen. The latter, by his haughty
treatment of the tribute-bearing Mongol envoys and by his
refusal to give them the customary presents, aroused the anger
of the Mongol chiefs against the Empire.
Yeh-hsien, notwithstanding China's seeming strength, was
aware of her real weakness, and crossed the Northern frontier of
the Empire at the head of an immense force and began to ravage
the Northern Provinces. For the purpose of resisting the
invasion, Wang Chgn gathered an army of half a million of men^
and, having induced the Emperor to accompany the expedition so
^i A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
as to inspire the troops with greater confidence, advanced to meet
the enemy at T'u Muh. There he strongly intrenched his force
before the hostile army came up. When Yeh-hsien arrived he
realized that it would be extremely difficult to carry the forti-
fications of the Chinese by storm, and accordingly he had resort
to treachery. He proposed terms of peace which were accepted by
the Chinese, but as the latter were withdrawing, in the belief that
the campaign was at an end, they were suddenly attacked by the
Mongols while passing through a narrow defile in the mountains.
The Chinese, taken by surprise and hampered by the difficulty of
their position, were unable to make any effective resistence and
ivere almost completely annihilated. During the fight Wang Chen
was killed and the Emperor taken prisoner.
The Mongols held the Emperor for ransom, but although the
sum demanded was not exorbitant, for some strange reason the
ransom money was never paid, and the Emperor was left in the
hands of his captors, his brother Ching Ti or Tai Tsung (1450)
'being placed upon the throne. Through the energy of a Chinese
general named Yu-chien, the Mongols were prevented from
carrying the invasion of the Empire further, and Peking was
saved from falling into their hands. When Yeh-hsien perceived
that no benefit was to be derived from keeping the Emperor a,
prisoner, he allowed him to return to Peking. Ying Tsung was
sent back with Imperial state, but as his brother Ching Ti was
unwilling to abdicate he was forced to retire for a time into
private life. During his brother's illness, by a coup d^etat he
regained the throne and ruled over the Empire for another eight
years. It was during this period that " The Complete Geographical
Record of the Empire" under the Ming Dynasty was published.
It consists of ninety volumes and is one of the most celebrated
works in Chinese literature.
Shortly before his death Ying Tsung issued an edict decreeing
that no slaves and concubines should be immolated at his burial.
A SKETCH OF CHINES B HISTORY, 95
thus abolishing a barbarous practice which had been introduced
by the Mongols and followed by the early Ming Emperors.
The Zenith of the Mtng Dynasty.
During the reigns of Hsien Tsung (A.D. 1465-1488), and
Hsiao Tsung (A.D. 1488-1506) who in turn succeeded Ying
Tsung, the Ming Dynasty reached ihe zenith of its glory. Many
important public works were completed, such as the deepening
of the canal between Peking and the Peiho River, thus making
it possible for vessels to travel by the Grand Canal all the way
from the Yangtsze River to the Capital. The Great Wall in the
North was repaired, and the important trade centre for Central
China, Hami, was captured from the Tartars.
The First European Traders arrive in China.
In the reign of Wu Tsung (A.D. 1506-1522) occurred an
event which may be considered to be the first step in bringing
China into closer commercial relations with the West. In 1511
the Portuguese trader Raphael Perestrato, with a small fleet of
vessels, arrived off the coast of Canton, and six years later Fernand
Peres D'andrad entered the Canton River with his squadron and
asked for the privilege of opening commercial intercourse. He
was favorably received by the Chinese officials, and was allowed
to proceed to Peking and to reside at the Court. This auspicious
beginning was doomed to a speedy eclipse, for a short time
afterwards a second Portuguese fleet under the command of
D'ahdrad's brother appeared in Chinese waters and committed
such acts of outrage and piracy along the coast from Ningpo to
Foochou that the good-will of the Chinese was turned into the
most bitter hatred, D'andrad was seized in the Capital, and, after
having been confined for some time in prison, was beheaded. This
act of reprisal is hardly to be wondered at when we take into
consideration the enormities the Portuguese had perpetrated at
Ningpo and Foochou. Shortly after, a great massacre of the
Portuguese at Ningpo took place, and those who escaped were
96 A SKSTCH OF CHINIESK HISTORY.
forced to flee to Macao. There they were allowed io settle, in
return for an annual rental.
The Japanese harass the coast af China*
The reign of the next Emperor Shih Tsung (A.D. 1522-1567)
was a troublous one, owing to the repeated invasions of the
Mongols in the North under a chief named Anta, and on account
of the piratical expeditions of the Japanese on the Chinese coast-
The Japanese had never forgiven the invasion of their country
by Kublai Khan, and were galled by the contemptuous way in
which they were regarded by tlie Chinese. The immediate cause
of the trouble was the refusal of the Chinese to grant trading
privileges to the Islanders. In the course of their marauding
expeditions the Japanese harried the coasts of China, captured
Ningpo, Shanghai, and Soochou, and carried off a large quantity of
spoil. After the Southern coast had suffered a long time from these
attacks, the Imperial Government was aroused to the necessity of
taking steps to put a stop to them, and a large force was despatched
against the invaders, with the result that the Japanese were
compelled temporarily to desist from their piratical incursions.
The Decline of the IMIn^ Dynasty.
We now come to the period when the glory of the Ming»
begins to wane, and signs of the break-up of the Dynasty appeared.
The Emperor Shfen Tsnng, more familiarly known by the title of
his reign as Wan Li, occupied the throne from 1573 to 1620.
When raised to the position of Emperor he was still a child, but,
owing to the wisdom of his mother and the loyal support of his
ministers, the first part of his reign was free from any serious
disturbances.
The principal events of his reign were as follows : —
(1) A conflict with the Japanese (A.D. 1592). A Japanese
Paimio, or Lord, named Fashiba (known to the Chinese as P'ing
Hsiu-Chi, and to the Japanese as Kideyoshi), who had raised
himself by his ability and courage from the position of a slave
to that of a warrior chief, resolved upon invading China and
A SKETCH OF CHINESfi HISTORY. 97
obtaining a foothold on the mainland. First he made overtures
to the King of Corea, and proposed to form an alliance with him
against China. The refusal of the King of Corea to accede to his
request excited his resentment and led to an invasion of Coreau
territory. He embarked with a large force in a hundred ships
and seized the important harbour of Fusan. Thence he advanced
i^on the Capital, Seoul, and the King of Corea was compelled
to flee. The latter in his extremity called upon Wan Li for
assistance ; the Emperor was not slow in answering the appeal
of his vassal, and an army was dispatched to Corea to drive out the
Japanese. Many conflicts took place between the two hostile
armies, of which none were decisive in their results. At length in
1598 the death of Fashiba (who in the meantime had become
Tycoon of Japan) brought the struggle to a close, and terms of
peace were arranged. The Japanese were allowed to establish a
settlement near the harbour of Fusan, and thus gained an open
door jnto the JK^ingdom of C orea^
(2) Further Intercourse with Europeans.
After the Portuguese, the Spaniards made their appearance in
the East Instead of settling on the mainland they made their
headquarters in the Philippine Islands, which they held until the
recent Spanish-American War. The bulk of the population at
Manila, the Capital of the Islands, was Chinese. The Spaniards
treated these Chinese settlers with systematic cruelty and tyranny,
and at one time, fearing lest the Chinese population might become
too numerous, they inaugurated a terrible massacre, hunting down
the Chinese as if they were wild beasts, and slaughtering them
in immense numbers. This outrageous barbarity of the people
from the West doubtless had the effect of making the Chinese
more disinclined than ever to enter into any close relations with
the strangers from over the seas. Somewhat later, in 1622, the
Dutch came to the East, and after frequent unsuccessful attempts
to gain a foothold on the mainland settled in the Pescadores.
8
98 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
They were driven out from these Islands by the Chinese, and
compelled to retreat to Formosa, where they erected Fort
Zealandia on the Northern coast.
(3) The coming of the Jesuit Missionaries to China.
In the Ming Dynasty the Jesuits sought to gain an entrance
into China. The great missionary St. Francis Xavier, after
preaching Christianity in India, was desirous of extending the
sphere of his labors to China. The Chinese officials, however,
refused him permission to land on the coast, and consequently he
was forced to take up his residence on the Island of San Cian,
near Macao, and there, within sight of the mainland, he died in the
year 1552. He was followed by Michal Roger and Matteo Ricci,
who were permitted to settle in the Kuangtung Province. In the
reign of Wan Li, Ricci found his way to Peking, and, through his
knowledge of Astronomy and Mechanics, gained considerable
influence at the Court. He published a translation of Euclid and
some Astronomical works, and rendered good service in correcting
the Chinese Calendar.
(4) The invasion of Nurhachu.
In the wild region North of Liao Tung, in the country now
called Manchuria, lived the Niuche tribes, Tartars of the same
blood as the Kins. They were divided up into a great many
clans, one of which was called the Manchu. It is interesting to
note that the word "Manchu" means "Pure," and that when the
Manchus finally came to rule over China they called their Dynasty
the '* Ch'ing," a Chinese word of the same significance as Manchu.
This clan was settled in the district some thirty miles East of
the city of Moukden, and under its chief Nurhachu gradually
obtained supremacy over all the other clans, and united them into
one confederacy.
The Emperor Wan Li roused their ire against China by
making the mistake of championing the cause of a certain chief
named Nikan, the principal opponent of Nurhachu among the
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORT. 99
Niuche tribes. After Nurhachu had consolidated the Niuche
tribes, he determined on the invasion of China. Gathering
together a well disciplined force of 40,000 men, in 1618, he
invaded Liao Tung. Before setting out on the expedition, he
drew up a document stating his grievances against China. This
he commanded to be read in the hearing of ihe army, so as to
rouse the hearts of his soldiers, and then to be burnt so that his
tale of injuries might ascend np on high and influence Heaven to
prosper him in his undertaking.
When the Manchus advanced into Liao Tung the Chinese
M'ere completely taken by surprise. A large army was
immediately dispatched to oppose their progress. The Chinese
commander, however, made the mistake of dividing his forces
into four divisions, and these were successively defeated by the
Manchus. At the capture of the city of Liao-yang, the
inhabitants acknowledged allegiance to their new masters by
shaving the front part of their heads. This is the first mention of
a custom which has since become universal throughout China.
The Manchus were unsuccessful in their attempt to take the
city of Ning-yiian, situated to the north of the Great Wall,
as it WAS defended by the Chinese with much vigor. Cannon
borrowed from the Portuguese, brought from Macao, supplemented
by others made under the superintendence of the Jesuit
Missionaries, were placed upon the battlements of the city, and
their deadly fire caused the Manchus to retire from the assault.
Just as the Manchu power, eventually destined to overthrow
the Ming Dynasty, loomed up on the horizon, the Emperor Wan
Li died. With his death the decadence of the Empire became
more clearly marked, and but a short time elapsed before the
Dynasty tottered to its fall.
Manchu Successes.
In 1625 Nurhachu established his Capital at Moukden. In
1627 T'ai Tsung succeeded his father Nurhachu. After invading
499790
100 A SKETCH OF CHIKBSB HISTORY.
Corea, and obtaining the submission of that country, in 1629, at
the head of 100,000 men he advanced on China. Realizing the
difficulty of taking the city of Ning-yiian, he made a dStour
around it, led his array to the North of Peking, and encamped
not far from the city walls. The Chinese general in command
of the forces at Ning-yiian, as soon as he heard of this move,
hastened to the relief of the Capital. When these Chinese
reinforcements arrived, T'ai Tsung found that it would be impossible
to invest the city successfully, and accordingly abandoned the
attempt and retired to his own territory. Thus the danger to the
Capital was temporarily averted.
The Downfall of the Ming Dynasty.
While this terrible foe was threatening China on the North,
a serious rebellion broke out within the boundaries of the Empire
in Shansi and Shensi under the leadership of two men, named
Li Tzu-ch*6ng and Chang Hsien-chung. City after city fell into
their hands, until, elated by their success, one of the chieftains,
Li Tzu-ch'eng, assumed the title of Emperor, and moved ou
Peking, declaring that he was about to establish a new Dynasty
to be known as the Tai Shun. The Emperor of China, Chuang
Lieh Ti, was taken by surprise, his Capital closely invested, and all
means of escape cut off. Despairing of his life, the Emperor,
with one of his faithful attendants, ascended the Mei Shan, or
Coal Hill, situated to the north of the Imperial Palace, in Peking,,
and, after looking down on the vast host assembled to destroy
his Capital, ended his troubles by committing suicide.
Li Tzu-ch'^ng then took possession of Peking, but his daya
of triumph were few, for he was soon to encounter another foe.
A Chinese general named Wu San-kuei who had been appointed
to the defence of the city of Ning-yiian, against the Manchus,
actuated by motives of personal hatred to Li Tzu-ch'feng,
determined to play the role of avenger of the Emperor. To effect
this purpose he entered into an alliance with the Manchus, who
A. SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 101
were only too willing to participate in the struggle, of which up
to this time they had been idle spectators. The rebel Li advanced
against Wu San-kuei, and a severe engagement was fought near
Shan-hai-kuan. The fortune of battle seemed about to declare
itself on the side of the rebels, when a large force under the
command of the Manchu Regent, Durgan, made its appearance
upon the scene and turned the scales. The rebels took to flight
and were followed in hot pursuit by Wu San-kuei. Li Tzu-oh'eng
fled to Peking, and, after setting fire to his palace, continued his
flight westward. The Manchu Regent appointed Wu San-kuei
to conduct the pursuit, and the latter carried out his orders so
successfully that the army of the rebels after frequent engagements
was finally defeated and the rebel chief himself was slain.
In the meantime Durgan had entered Peking in triumph,
and, according to agreement with Wu San-kuei, he rewarded
his own people for their services in helping to suppress the rebellion,
by establishing a Manchu Dynasty. He sent for his nephew, the
Khan of the Manchus, a child of six years of age, and placing him
upon the throne inaugurated the Ch*ing Dynasty.
Thus amid bloodshed and rebellion, in the year 1644, passed
away the once glorious Ming Dynasty, and China came again
under the rule of the Northern Tartars.
102 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
CHAPTER XV.
The Period of the Manchu Conquest.
The Minffs attempt to set up an Empire in the South.
The child placed upon the throne by Durgan assumed the
Dynastic Title of Shih Tsu Chang, but is generally known by the
title of his reign as Shun Chih.
As the Manchus were conciliatory in their treatment of the
Chinese in the Capital, the people of the North submitted readily
to their conquerors ; but at Nanking and in the Provinces south of
the Yangtsze an attempt was made to set up a successor of
Chuang Lieh Ti and to continue the Ming Dynasty. Fuh Wan,
a grandson of Wan Li, had the best claim to the throne, and was
proclaimed Emperor, but the selection proved an unfortunate one,
for he was lacking in wisdom, courage, and energy, and was
incapable of waging a successful contest for the Empire. He was
supported by an able and patriotic scholar named Shih K*o-fa, who,
although not a military magistrate, was appointed to the command
of the army. The Manchus after an unsuccessful attempt to
arrange terms with Shih K'o-fa, advanced in great numbers toward
the South, and captured with but little diflBculty the cities they
passed through on their march.
The Seizure of Yanffchou.
Shih K*o-fa made a determined stand at the city of Yangchou,
situated on the lower waters of the Yangtsze, in the Province of
Kiangsu, close to the junction of the Grand Canal with that river.
It was suggested to Shih K*o-fa that he could gain a material
advantage over the enemy if he would flood the country, but he
refused to do this on the ground that it might cause greater loss
A SKETCH OF OHINESK HISTORY. 103
of life to the Chinese than to the Manchus, and defended his policy
by saying " First the people and next the Dynasty." The fighting
lasted seven days, until finally the Manchus were able to force an
entrance into the doomed city. Then followed an awful scene
of bloodshed and destruction, the inhabitants being brutally
massacred and the buildings razed to the ground. Shih K'o-fa
himself was either killed while attempting to make his escape, or,
as is more likely, ended his life by committing suicide.
The Rout of the Min^s.
The Manchus after capturing Yangchou advanced upon
Nanking. The worthless Emperor Fuh Wan, aroused from a
drunken debauch, hurried off towards Wuhu, but was pursued by
a body of horsemen, captured, and taken a prisoner to Nanking,
where he was executed.
Three other Ming Emperors successively attempted to occupy
the throne ; the first, Chang Wang, reigned only for three days in
Hangchow, and then submitted to the Manchus; the second, T*ang
Wang, with the help of a pirate chief named Ching Ghih-liang,
continued the contest for a longer period, but was gradually driven
to the South and was finally captured at the city of Tingchou and
executed. Ningpo, Shanghai, Wenchow, and T'aichow rapidly
fell into the hands of the Manchus, and as each city was taken the
inhabitants were forced to shave the front of their heads and to
adopt the queue as a badge of servitude. The third to aspire to
the throne was Kuei Wang, a great-grandson of Wan Li. At
first he met with considerable success, and was able to make
himself acknowledged in the Provinces of Kiarigsi and Kuangtung.
His success was, however, temporary, and before long the Manchus
by their energy and vigor regained these Provinces and
drove the would-be Emperor into Burmah. The Burmese upon
the appearance of the army in pursuit delivered him up into the
hands of his enemy. According to one account, desparing of life,
and realizing that he could expect no mercy at tJie hands of
104 A. SKBTCH OF chutesb history.
those he had opposed^ Kuei Wang committed snioide by strangling
himself with a silken scarf.
The Pirate Kexliig;a.
As already stated, the pirate chief Ching Chih-liaug had
espoused the oanse of the Mings, and with his fleet continued
to harass the coasts of China. The Manchus, nnaccastomed to
fighting on water» were generally worsted in their naval battles,
and so they used every means they could to make terms with this
troublesome enemy. They held out to the pirate chief the most
tempting offers of o£Scial rank and emolument, and finally
inveigled him into going to Peking, where he was kept some time
as a State prisoner in honorable confinement. His son Koxinga,
whose mother was a Japanese, was a very remarkable man. In
his childhood he was distinguished for his precociousness, and at the
age of fifteen was successful in the Imperial Literary Examinations.
He steadfastly refused to follow his father to Peking, and in
command of a fleet of vessels sailed to the Pescadores, where he
fortified himself strongly and then proceeded to sally out against
the Manchus and to harry the coast of Fakien. Afterwards he
advanced north wards,^ and making his headquarters on the Island
of Tsoong^4ning, at the mouth of the Yangtsze, ventured to sail
up the river, in hope of recapturing Nanking from the Manchus^
This attempt proved unsuccessful, and later he was obliged to
return with his fleet to the South.
The Principal Events of the Rel^n of Shun Ohilw
We have already spoken of the turbulent character of the
early part of this Emperor's reign. After the death of Durgan,
who had ruled wisely and firmly during the minority of the
£Imperor„ Shun Chih himself took the reins of government^ and
continued to carry on the policy of his able minister.
A rebellion which had broken out in Ssuch'uan was suppressed..
AjoG^iig the important measures passed daring his reign were
the following ; —
A SKSTCH OF CHINBSi: HISTORY. 105
Henceforth no eunuch of the Palace was to be allowed to
hold any oflScial position in the Empire. This injunction was a
very necessary one, for the safety of the throne had been
threatened more than once by the eunuchs becoming too^werful
and stirring up civil dissension. %4J
Another important measure was the institution of the Grand
Council, which still exists, and which next Ahe Emperor is the
highest power in the Empire. It is composed of four members,
two Manchus and two Chinese, who possess the privilege of
obtaining a personal audience from the Emperor whenever they
wish. They outrank the members of the Six Boards and those of
the Board of Censors. By giving the Chinese equal representation
with the Manchus in all official appointments, the new Dynasty
did much to remove the hatred with which it was at first regarded.
106 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
r
DIVISION IV.
The Struggle between the Chinese and
Western European Nations
(A.D. 1662- ).
CHAPTER XVI.
The Consolidation of the Manchu Empire
UNDER K^ang Hsi (A.D. 1 662- 1 723).
^
The Accession of K'ans: HsI (A.D. 1662).
Shun Chill before his death appointed as his successor his
second son, known in history by the title of his reign as K'ang
Hsi. When he ascended the throne he was only eight years of
age, and during his minority the administration of the government
was entrusted to four Regents.
The Death of Koxin^a (A.D. 1662).
After the failure of the attempt to take Nanking, Koxinga
made an attack upon Formosa, and with the aid of the Chinese in
the island succeeded in expelling the Dutch, who had settled there
after they had been driven out of the Pescadores. Koxinga took
the title of King of Formosa, but did not live long to enjoy his
triumph, dying at the age of thirty-eight in a paroxysm of anger.
European Embassies come to PeMng (A.D. 1664).
In 1664 two European Embassies arrived at Peking, hoping
to open diplomatic relations with the Empire ; one was from
Eussia, coming overland by way of Siberia, and the other from
A. SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 107
Holland, coming by the sea. The Manchu Regents treated both
Embassies in the haughty manner with which they were
accustomed to treat all foreigners. The foreign Ambassadors
were told that they would be expected to perform the ceremony
of the "k^ow-tow" when admitted to the presence of the
Emperor. The Dutch yielded to this demand, but gained little from
their compliance, as the Imperial consent could only be obtained
for an embassy to enter China once every eight years, and then
it was not to consist of more than one hundred men, of whom
only twenty would be allowed to enter the Capital. The Russians
refused to perform the "k'ow-tow," and having acquired no
privileges departed for home the same way they came, to report
their failure to their Czar Alexis.
The Chinese insisted thus strongly on the performance of the
**k'ow-tow" because they regarded this ceremony as indicating
that those who went through it acknowledged that they belonged
to countries which were on the same level as those tributasy to
China.
The Work of Christian Missionaries.
In 1667, owing to a lack of harmony among the Regents,
K'ang Hsi dismissed them and assumed control of the
government. The change was a welcome one to the Christian
Missionaries, as the Regents had not been at all favorably disposed
towards them or their work, Adam Schaal, who had been
appointed tutor to the young Emperor, had been thrown into
prison, and on a false charge condemned to death by the slow
process (Ling Ch'ih, the cutting up into a thousand pieces). The
sentence, however, was never carried out, and Schaal was left to
languish in prison until his death, at the age of seventy-eight.
K*ang Hsi, reversing the policy of the Regents, showed favor
to the Jesuit priests, and issued an edict permitting Missionaries
to return to their churches, and to minister to their converts, but
not to proselytise among the heathen.
108 ▲ 8EBTCH OF CHINESE HISTORT*
In the meantime P6re Verbiest, a Dutch priest, had succeeded
Pere Schaal at Peking. He was appointed tutor to the Emperor,
and distinguished himself by correcting some serious errors in the
Calendar issued by the Astronomical Board. As this cast a
reflection upon the accuracy of the knowledge of the officials
constituting this Board^ it resulted in making for him many bitter
enemies at the Court
The Rebellion of Wu 8an-kuel (A.D. 1674).
At the close of the struggle between the Manchus and the
Chinese, three of the most distinguished generals who had assisted
the Manchus were rewarded by receiving the title of Prince, and
were appointed to rule over large territories. Wu San^knei was
commissioned to govern the Provinces of Kuang-tung and Yunnan.
K*ang Hsi foresaw more clearly than the Regents the dangers
that might arise if these satraps became too powerful, and 8o
determined to limit their authority. Of the three Princes the ond
he djeaded most was Wu San-kuei, and although the son of the
latter was held as a hostage at the Capital, the Emperor decided
to put the father's loyalty to the test, and sent a messenger
summoning him to appear immediately at the Court. The younger
Wu secretly warned his father of the danger he would incur by
complying with the Imperial mandate, and advised him to refuse
to obey. Acting on this advice the elder Wu pleaded old age
and begged to be excused from making the long journey. The
Emperor, dissatisfied with this excuse and having his suspicions
more fully aroused, sent commissioners to inquire into the
conduct of Wu San-kuei and to discover whether he was plotting
rebellion. Wu received the officials with great respect, but when
repeatedly pressed to accompany them to Peking finally avowed
his purpose of revolt in these words, "I will come to Peking,
but it will be at the bead of 80,000 soldiers."
Thereupon he raised the standard of rebellion, and K^ang
Hsi, by way of reprisal, put the younger Wu to death. Tliis news
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 109
when it reached the father added to the intensity of his already
existing hatred. In a short time the whole of the South and
West of the Empire was in a state of rehellion, while at the same
time civil dissensions broke out within the walls of the Capital, and
the Mongols made an invasion from the North.
K*ang Hsi proved himself equal to the emergency, and
having crushed the Northern invasion he began a vigorous
campaign against Wu San-kuei. The contest was waged with
varying success on both sides and might have been continued
indefinitely had it not been for the sudden death of Wu San-kuei
in 1678. With his death the backbone of the rebellion was broken,
and although his grandson attempted to prolong the struggle
he was driven from city to city and at last, in order to save
himself from falling into the hands of the Manchus, committed
suicide. When this formidable uprising had been suppressed,
great joy was manifested in the Capital, the Emperor himself
-writing a poem to commemorate the event.
The Oonqiiast of* Formosa (A.D. 1683).
After the death of Koxinga his son succeeded as ruler
of Formosa, but K*ang Hsi after pacifying the "Eighteen
Provinces" determined to undertake the subjugation of the
island. Three hundred ships with 12,000 men were dispatched
to the Pescadores, where a serious naval engagement took place
which resulted in the rebel fleet being put to flight. The
Imperial ships gave chase and upon arriving at the harbour of
Lur-mun in Formosa, being favored by an exceptionally high
tide, were able to sail close into the shore and begin the bombard-
ment of the town. This high tide was regarded by the rebels
as an intervention of Providence in behalf of the enemy, for they
recalled the fact that Koxinga had been helped in the same way
when he seized the place from the Dutch, and consequently they
submitted to the invaders without a struggle, yielding to what
seemed to be a decree of Fate.
110 A SKETCH OF OHINESB HISTORY.
Formosa now came under the formal rule of the Manchus,
and for a time K'ang Hsi reigned with undisputed sway over the
whole vast Empire.
The War with Russia (A.D. 1689).
At this time the Chinese came into collision with the Russians
on the Amour River. The Russians had built a fort at Albazin
on the upper courses of the river, and the Chinese suspected that
they were planning an advance towards the South into Chinese
territory. In order to prevent this the Chinese troops attacked
and destroyed the fort and carried off some of the Russian garrison
to Peking.
By the treaty of Nerchinsk, made in 1689, peace was declared,
and it was agreed that the Russians should be allowed to construct
a new fort at Nerchinsk in place of the one at Albazin, and that
the Amour River should be considered the boundary line between
the two Empires.
This was the_first treaty China ever entere d into with a
foreign power, and was the precursor of the numerous conventions
and agreements that were to follow in succeeding years.
The Oonquest of Oentral Asia (A.D. 1696).
In 1680, Galdan, chief of the Eleuths, a Kalmuch tribe
occupying territory in the neighbourhood of Hi, declared war
against the Khalkas, a tribe of Mongols which had submitted to
the Manchus. The Chief of the Khalkas fled for help to the Court
of K*ang Hsi and as a vassal of the Empire claimed protection.
Galdan, upon learning this, threatened that in case K'ang Hsi did
not deliver up into his hands the fugitive chieftain he would
immediately undertake an invasion of the Empire. The Emperor's
answer to this menace was to march a large army composed of
three divisions to attack the forces of Galdan, with the result that
the latter was disastrously defeated. The Emperor restored their
territory to the Khalkas, and after the death of Galdan appointed
one of this Chiefs nephews to rule over the Eleuths, annexing all of
A SKETCH OF OHlNESE HISTORY. Ill
their territory East of the Altai Mountains to the Chinese Empire,
and leaving to him only that portion which was to the West. In
this way a large part of Central Asia hecame tributary to China.
Persecution of the Roman Oathoiic Missionaries.
As we have seen, K^ang Hsi was at first liberal in his policy
towards the Jesuit Missionaries, and, in consequence of the Imperial
favor which they enjoyed, they met with much success in their
propaganda. In the Provinces of Kiangsi, Kiangsu, and Anhui
they had built one hundred churches and had enrolled 100,000
converts.
When the Dominicans and Franciscans reached China, many
disputes arose between them and the Jesuits as to the terminology
to be employed in translating the word for God, and as to the
permissibility of ancestral worship, which up to this time had
been sanctioned by the Jesuits. An appeal was made to the Pope
to settle the points at issue, and he pronounced a judgment
unfavorable to the Jesuits, forbidding ancestral worship and the
use of the terms T*ien and Shang Ti for the name of God, and
commanding that the term T4en Chu (Heavenly Lord) should be
adopted instead.
The Emperor was highly incensed at an appeal for the settle-
ment of the dispute being carried tp a Court outside the Empire,
and especially so as the decision given was contrary to his own
opinions. He accordingly issued a decree forbidding Missionaries
to remain in China without special permission from himself. He
allowed a few to reside in Peking, but ordered that all who
continued to live secretly in the interior after the promulgation
of his decree should be severely punished.
The Literary Worlcs ol" K'SLng Hsi's Reiffn.
K^ang Hsi was a great patron of literature, and during his
reign the splendid standard dictionary known as K*ang Hsi's
Dictionary was compiled by a commission of scholars appointed by
the Emperor. A huge encyclopedia consisting of 5,026 volumes
112 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTOf?.
was also published, and K'ang Hsi himself was the author of
sixteen famous moral maxims, which were afterwards annotated
and expanded by his son Yung Cheng and formed into the book
called the Sacred Edict, a work which is supposed to be read and
expounded throughout the Empire in a prominent place in every
town and village on the first and fifteenth days of every month.
Peter the Great sends ah Embassy to Ohina (A.D. 1719).
Peter the G reat o f Russia in thejy ftar ^'^^■fl °^"^ an Embassy,
headed by M. Ismaloff, to the Court at Peking. An honorable
reception was accorded to its members, the ceremony of the
"k*ow-tow" not being pressed when an Imperial audience was
asked for. M. Ismaloff returned to Russia much elated at having
accomplished what he naturally considered a very successful
mission. A caravan was immediately fitted out in Russia and
sent to China for the purpose of opening up trade between the two
nations, but when it arrived at Peking K'ang Hsi was on his
death-bed, and the attitude of the high officials at the Court had
undergone a complete change. The Russians were treated with
scant courtesy and sent back to their own land by way of Siberia,
the Chinese declaring that all commercial intercourse must be
confined to the frontiers between the two countries. The great
dream of Czar Peter for tapping the wealth of China thus ended in
a discouraging failure.
The Death ol" K'anff Hsi (A.D. 1723).
In the year 1723 the Emperor passed away at the age of
sixty-nine. Just before his death he appointed his fourth son
Yung Ch6ng as his successor.
Thus ended one of the most brilliant reigns in the whole of
Chinese history, for K^ang Hsi was a great warrior, an able
scholar and a wise ruler. On the whole he was just, and aimed at
doing what was right and for the interest of his country. In his
treatment of foreigners he was more liberal than those by whom
he was surrounded. He was laborious and self-sacrificing in
a'SKBTCH Oy OHINBSB HISTOKT, 113
behalf of Jhis people, and did much towards rendering China a
prosperous and powerful nation. He is justly entitled to renown
as the one who consolidated and completed the Manchu conquest
of the Empire.
114 A SKETCH OF CHINISB HISTORY.
CHAPTER XVII.
Attempts on the part of Western Powers
TO OPEN Diplomatic and Commercial
Relations with China.
The Accession of* the Emperor Yung Ohen£f(A.D. 1723).
The new Emperor, who was forty-four years of age, was a man
of integrity, and seemed in many ways a fitting successor to his
illustrious father. He was obliged to incarcerate some of his
brothers and to banish others, because, actuated by jealousy, they
plotted rebellion against him as soon as he came to the throne.
The Important Events of his Reififn.
Yung Ch^ng was less favorably inclined towards the Jesuit
missionaries than his father had been, and all except those in the
service of the Emperor at Peking were sent to Macao, and
forbidden, on pain of death, to carry on any active propaganda.
Over three hundred churches were destroyed and 300,000 converts .
were left without the oversight of foreign priests.
During his reign further attempts were made on the part of
Western Nations to enter into closer relations with China. In 1727
Count Sava Vladislavitche arrived at Peking for the purpose of
revising the Treaty of Nerchinsk. On this occasion the Russians
obtained a permanent footing in Peking. A number of Russian
youths were left in the Capital to engage in the study of the
Chinese language, and those in charge of them were given
authority by the Czar to carry on diplomatic relations with the
Chinese government.
In the same year a Portuguese Embassy reached the Capital.
In the audiences granted to the Russian and Portuguese Embassies
k SKETCH OF CHINESB HISTORY. 115
it is noteworthy that the credentials of the Western Rulers were
placed directly in the hands of the Emperor, and not, as was
customary, placed on a table in front of him.
The Death of Yung Oheng (A.D 1735).
A gloom was cast over the closing years of the reign of Yung
Chfing by serious disasters occurring in different parts of the
Empire, and by rebellious outbreaks in Mongolia.
The death of the Emperor occurred very suddenly, before he
had appointed an heir-apparent. Although an able and conscien-
tious ruler he is not esteemed as highly by the Chinese as his
father. He was fond of literature, and was himself a voluminous
writer, and his special claim to remembrance is due to this fact as
much as to anything else. He was anti-foreign in his sentiments,,
and dreaded the introduction of Christianity into the Empire
because it appeared to him to set up an imperium in imperio^ and
to establish an authority which might rival his own in his dealings
with his subjects. He looked with disfavor on throwing down
any of the old barriers erected for the exclusion of foreigners, and
believed that an influx of Europeans foreboded much evil to his
country. His motto may be said to have been "China for the
Chinese. "
Ttie Accession of the Emperor Oh'ien Lung (A.D. 1736).
Ch4en Lung succeeded his father at the age of twenty-five,^
and on account of his youth and inexperience associated with
himself four Regents to carry on the government.
His first act was one of clemency, for he released the brothers
of his father from their confinement, and permitted them to wear
again the yellow girdle, the distinguishing badge of the Manchus
for those directly related to the reigning Emperor.
The Suppression of Rebellions (A.D. 1746).
A rebellion which had broken out in the South-western
provinces spread to the provinces of Kuangsi and Hunan. Th&
generals sent to suppress it, proving incompetent to cope with it
successfully, were put to death, the punishment usually meted out
116 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
to unsuccessful generals in China. General Chang Kuang, who was
appointed in their place, managed to subdue the rebels and to
pacify the disturbed districts. He was not, however, so successful
in his attempt to put down a rising in Ssuch*uan, and after being
recalled, suffered the same penalty as those he had supplanted.
A Serious Outbreak in IVIoni^oiia (A.D. 1753).
During the first ten years of Ch'ien Lung's reign the
Mongols had been ruled by a chieftain named Ts^rining. After
his death in 1745, all the elements of disorder were let loose. For
a short time one of Ts^nning's sons, by name Dardsha, gained the
supremacy and maintained it until one of his relatives, named
Dayatsi, with an ally named Amursana, rose to dispute it. After
repeated battles Dardsha was defeated and slain. The two allies
then fell into dispute over the question as to which wa^ to hold the
place of chieftain, and Amursana being worsted in battle, fled to
the Court at Peking to claim the assistance of the Emperor. He
was cordially received and an army was sent to chastise Dayatsi,
and to establish Amursana as ruler over the Mongols, under the
protection of the Chinese Empire. AjKer this had been effected
Amursana was content for a while to act as an obedient vassal of
the Emperor, but later, ambitious to make himself an independent
'ruler, he began to plot rebellion. Ch'ien Lung dispatched a
powerful expedition against him, and Amursana was forced to
flee into Russian territory, where he shortly afterwards died.
This rebellion in Mongolia convinced the Emperor of the necessity
of strengthening his Western frontier, and led to the annexation of
Eastern Turkestan.
The Return of the Tur^uts to the Chinese Empire
(A.D. 1768)p
While the tribes on the Mongolian frontiers were in a
ferment, the Turguts fled from the turmoil across the steppes of the.
Kirghiz into Russian territory, and were permitted by the Russians
to settle in the fertile country near the Volga River* Here they
remained for half a century in tranquillity, but they never became
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTOBT. lit
reconciled to their exile, and were made restless by the exactions
of the tax-gatherers, and the forced proscription of the best of
their men to serve in the Russian army. When the news of
Amnrsana's death reached them,- they determined to migrate back
to their original home. Preparations for their flight were made
with the greatest secrecy, and in the dead of winter in the year
1771, avast host of men, women, and children, numbering 160,000,
started out on the long and perilous journey. When they had
accomplished the first stage they were overtaken by the Cossacks,
who had learnt of their departure and had been sent to overtake
them. One division of the large host of fugitives was cut in
pieces by the merciless pursuers. For eight months the remnant
marchedr^tErough the deserts, and over the steppes of Central
Asia, harrassed by enemies, and distressed by famine, thirst, and
disease. They re-entered Chinese territory near the shores of
Lake Tengis, to which point Ch'ien Lung, upon learning of their
approach, had dispatched a force of cavalry to receive them. The
fugitives, by this time reduced to 70,000,' upon sight of the waters
of the Lake burst into uncontrollable frenzy, and rushed forward
to assuage their torturing thirst. The wild Bashkis, who had been
hanging on the outskirts of the caravan, seized this opportunity,
afforded them by the confusion among the Turguts, to attack them
with great fury. On the shores of the Lake there was waged a
terrible conflict, and thousands of the combatants perished. A
large number were drowned, and the waters of the lake were dyed
with their blood. At last the Chinese army appeared on the
scene, and, driving off the Bashkis, saved what was left of the
Turguts. Ch^ien Lung assigned them lands to cultivate and they
settled down once more in peace and safety.
A War with Burmah (A.D. 1768). v.
In 1768 trouble broke out with Burmah, probably caused by
incursions of Burmese marauders into Chinese territory. At first
the Burmese defended their territory with much bravery, and
succeeded in defeating the army sent against them by the
118 A SKBTCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
Emperor. Afterward a large force was dispatched against them,
and the King of Burmah was compelled to agree to a treaty by
which perpetual peace was proclaimed between the two countries,
and the Burmese promised to "pay a triennial tribute to the
Court at Peking. This tribute was thenceforth regularly paid,
and was continued for some time after the British Government
had annexed Burmah.
A Oonflict with the Aborlf^inas.
One of the aboriginal tribes of China, the Miaotsz, after
being expelled from their early home, had settled on the borders of
the Province of Ssiich'uan. In their new home they preserved
their ancient customs and in the mountain fastnesses lived almost
as an independent people. As constant conflicts took place
between them and the Chinese by whom they were surrounded,
Ch'ien Lung finally decided to inflict upon them a severe
punishment. He was roused lo take this step because the Chief of
the Miaotsz had murdered two Chinese envoys, and had burnt the
letter brought from the Emperor. Owing to the mountainous
character of the country the task of leading an army of invasion
into it was full of difficulty. The only roads were mountain
tracks, and there was constant danger of the Chinese force falling
into an ambush. After severe fighting the Chinese succeeded in
reducing every stronghold except one. Here the Miaotsz made a
desperate stand, and finally yielded only when forced to do so by
hunger. Ch'ien Lunoj obtained the surrender of the Miaotsz chief
by promising to spare his life, but this promise was afterward
treacherously disregarded. The men of the Miaotsz garrison were
banished to Hi where they were forced to labor as military
convicts for the rest of their lives.
Other Wars during the Reii^n of Oh^en Lun^f.
These successes filled the Emperor with the lust of conquest,
and after peace had been secured within the Empire, wars were
waged with neighbouring countries and tribes.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTOBY. 119
One of the most important of these wars was that with the
Gurkhas, who in 1790 had left their home in the hills of Nepaul,
crossed the Himalayas, and made a marauding expedition into
Thibet. The causes leading up to this conflict were briefly as
follows. In 1780 the Dalai Lama, the chief priest of the Buddhist
religion, died while on a visit to the Monasteries in Peking. His
property and treasures were appropriated by a brother, who
succeeded him as Dalai Lama. When he refused to give any
share of the inheritance to a younger brother, the latter invited
the Gurkhas into the country to assist in gaining his rights.
These hardy warriors, tempted by the chance of plunder, were
only too willing to cross the frontiers. The Chinese garrison on
the borders of Thibet were utterly unable to resist their attacks,
and in order to buy them off offered a bribe on behalf of the
Thibetans of 10,500 ounces of gold to be paid annually by the
abbots of the monasteries. At the same time the Chinese general
sent a misleading report to Peking stating that the Gurkhas had
tendered their submission to the throne. When the time for the
payment of the Gurkhas arrived, the Chinese tried to put them off
with further promises, until finally the patience of the invaders
became exhausted, and in order to enrich themselves they attacked
and sacked the wealthy town of Tashilumbp.
The Dalai Lama then appealed to th^ Emperor of China for
help, and the latter, hearing for the first time the true state of
affairs, at once commanded that the Gurkhas should be driven out
of Thibet, and that their territory should be invaded. A large
Chinese army was sent into Thibet for this purpose, and the
Gurkhas were compelled to retreat. They were pursued by the
Chinese to within striking distance of their Capital, and were
forced to sue for peace. According to the terms arranged, the
Gurkhas acknowledged the sovereignty of China, and from that
day to this missions have regularly travelled every five years from
Nepaul through Thibet to Peking, carrying tribute to the
Chinese Emperor.
120 A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
Intercourse between Ohina and Enf^lanci.
Commercial intercourse between China and England had from
the very start been on a basis which was very unsatisfactory
to the English and many attempts were made on the part of the
latter to gain larger advantages.
As far back as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in whose time
the first charter was granted to the East India Company (1601),
an expedition had been sent out under John Mildenhall to open
trade relations, but nothing of importance had come of it. Later,
Charles I granted a charter to a body of English merchants
to form a company to promote commerce with China, and Captain
Weddell, acting on this permission, sailed for the East with a small
fleet, arriving at Macao in 1635. The Portuguese, fearing commer-
cial rivalry, placed every obstacle in the way of the English, and
prevented their obtaining a foothold on the Island, and consequently
the English Captain decided to proceed to Canton. When the
fleet was passing the Bogue Forts on the way up the Canton
Kiver, a Chinese battery suddenly opened fire. The English ships
retaliated, and after silencing the guns of the battery, landed
a force, took possession of the forts, and hoisted the British
colours. This step induced the Chinese to grant the right to trade,
and a short time afterwards, a trading post was established outside
the walls of Canton. The Chinese authorities, however, placed
restrictions upon foreign trade by charging excessive export and
import duties. This policy of strangling trade enriched the local
officials who collected the tariff duties, and consequently was
popular with them. The main purpose was to hinder imports, for
the Chinese argued that the importation of foreign goods caused
an outflow of silver, and so impoverished their country.
In 1759 Mr. Flint, another Englishman, attempted to open
commercial relations at Ningpo, and failing in this, sailed in a
native junk to Tientsin for the purpose of presenting a memorial
to the Emperor, asking for increased trading privileges. On his
arrival at Tientsin the authorities immediately sent him back to
A SKKTCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 121
Canton, informing him that he was to wait there until the answer
from the Emperor had been received. After waiting at Canton^
for some time he was summoned to the Viceroy's YamSn to-
receive the Emperor's answer. There an attempt was made to-
force him to do homage on his knees according to Chinese custom,
but this he vigorously resisted. Subsequently he was sent to
Macao, and thence, at the request of the Chinese oflScials, back
to England ; the effort which he had made to force an entrance
into China being considered an. unpardonable offence.
At about the same time an Englisli gunner was seized and.
put to death by the Chinese for having caused the death of a
Chinese, by firing a salute from a gun from which, through
oversight, the ball had not been removed. Innumerable causes of
friction occurred throughout the whole of this period, and led to
much mutual misunderstanding.
Lord Macartney's Visit to Pelcini: (a.d. 1759).
In order to bring about more amicable relations between the
two countries Lord Macartney was sent out in 1759, in the reign
of George III of England, to visit the Emperor in Peking. He
took with him a large number of presents as tokens of the King
of England's goodwill towards the Emperor of China. When
he arrived in China he was received with much honor, but^
unknown to himself, the vessel upon which he was conveyed to
Tientsin contained on its flag the inscription "a tribute bearer
from the country of England. " From Tientsin he proceeded to
Peking, and on the route a discussion broke out between the
Chinese mandarins and. himself as to whether he would perform,
the "k'ow-tow" before the Emperor. This he firmly refused to
do unless a Chinese magistrate of equal rank with himself would
make the same obeisance before a portrait of George III*.
Finally the performance of this ceremony was waived, and Lord
Macartney was permitted to have two interviews with the Emperor
Ch*ien Lung, not however at Peking, but in the gardens of the
Palace at JehoL As a result of the visit, it was granted that the
122 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORT.
English might trade at Canton as long as they were obedient to
i^he local officials. It is significant to note, as a proof of the
inability of the Chinese at that time to appreciate the strength of
foreign nations, that Lord Macartney was received and treated as
an envoy from a tributary state.
The Death of Oh'len Lunff (A.D. 1799). Extent of the
Empire.
In 1796, three years before his death, Ch'ien Lung abdicated
in favour of his son Chia Ch'ing. He had reigned for sixty years
and had brought the present Dynsisty to the summit of its glory.
From the steppes of Mongolia on the North"! to Cochin-China on
»the South, and from Formosa on the East to Nepaul on the West,
the Chinese armies had everywhere been victorious. Upwards of
400,000,000 people acknowledged the rule of the Great Emperor.
The Reiffn ol" Ohia Oh*lns (A.D. 1796-1821).
Chia Ch'ing was equal neither in character nor ability to his
father, and was utterly incapable of guiding the ship of state
ihrough the stormy period about to follow. As a lad he had been
fond of literary pursuits, but as he grew older this taste
disappeared, and he gave himself up to selfish amusements, being
•especially fond of actors and theatrical exhibitions. During his
reign the Ch'ing Dynasty began its period of decline.
The Rise of* Secret Societies (A.D. 1796).
The leaders of the '' White Lily Society, " taking advantage
of the consternation caused by the appearance of a comet in the
skies, raised the standard of revolt in the Provinces of Hupeh,
Honan, Shensi, Kansuh, and Ssuch'uan. The main object of this
'Society was the extermination of the Ch'ing Dynasty and the
iresto ration of the Ming. During the time of disorder two
■attempts were made to assassinate the Emperor, one in the streets
-of Peking, and the other in the private apartments of his palace.
In the second instance the Emperor's life was saved by the
'bravery of his second son Mientiing, who with his own hand killed
rtwo of the assailants. The rebellion was finally subdued, but not
A SKETCH or CHINESE HISTORY. 123
until it had cost an enormous number of lives and a large
sum of money.
Foreign Embassies to the Oourt of* Peking: (A.D. 1816).
As we have already noted, the commerce between China and
England was much hampered by the lack of a good understanding
between the two nations. The Chinese felt they had further cause
for resentment against the English because the latter had on two
■occasions, in 1802 and 1813, taken forcible possession of Macao.
This the English had done in order to keep the place from
falling into the hands of the French during the Napoleonic wars.
Finally, in consequence of the complications arising between
the English merchants at Canton and the Chinese authorities,
the English Government determined to dispatch another special
■embassy to Peking to renew the negotiations begun by Lord
Macartney, and to arrange some better method of carrying on
trade. In 1816 Lord Amherst was appointed for this important
mission. After arriving at Tientsin he was confronted with
ihe same problem as Lord Macartney had faced, that is, the
question of the performance of the "k*ow-tow," and he maintained
on the point the same attitude as his predecessor. From Tientsin
he proceeded to Tungchou under the convoy of Duke Ho. Soon
after his arrival at this place he was informed that word had come
from the Emperor that he was to come on immediately to Peking,
where he would be received at an audience in the Yuan-ming-yuan
Gardens at the Summer Palace, just outside the Capital. The
cavalcade started at five o'clock in the evening, travelled all night,
and finally arrived at its destination at daybreak. Here Lord
Amherst was subjected to much inconvenience owing to the
rudeness of the spectators who had gathered to see the strange
foreigner. To increase his discomfort, Duke Ho appeared with
a message that the Emperor desired to see him at once. Lord
Amherst pleaded fatigue, and the non-arrival of his baggage,
•containing his Court costume, and begged to have the audience
postponed. This impolitic request on his part roused the anger
124: A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
of the Emperor, who issued a peremptory order that the English
Ambassador should return to Tungchou without receiving an
audience, and thence should proceed to Canton. Thus the mission
came to a disastrous and humiliating conclusion.
Previous to Lord Amherst's embassy in 1805, the Russian
Count Goloyken had travelled overland to Peking. He was met
at the pass in the Great Wall by emissaries from the Emperor,
and was told that it was useless for him to advance further unless
he was willing to perform the "k'ow-tow," and so he was obliged
to return across Siberia without having accomplished anything.
The Accession of Tao Kuang (A.D. 1821-1851).
In 1820, upon the death of his father, Tao Kuang succeeded
to the throne. In character he was much superior to his
predecessor, and at once took steps to rid the Court of the
numerous actors and mountebanks. He paid close attention to
the affairs of state, and although by nature quiet and retiring, yet
at critical moments he showed that he possessed much deter-
mination of purpose. He had, however, the same dislike for
foreigners as the rest of his family.
During the first part of his reign he was occupied in securing
peace at home, for troubles had broken out on the western
frontiers in Kashgar, and disorder had made its appearance in
Formosa. These uprisings were finally quelled, but not until
much effort had been expended.
A SKETCH OF OHlNBSB HISTORY. 125
CHAPTER XVIII.
The First War between China and Great
Britain (A.D. 1840- 1843).
The Appointment of Lord Napier as Representative of
the Enfl^iish Qovernment in China.
When the charter of the East India Company expired in
April 1834, the English Government decided to assume control
of their commerce with China. Hitherto all commercial transac-
tions at Canton had been carried on between the representative of
the British merchants, or Taipan, on the one hand, and a com-
mittee of native merchants, known as the Cohong, on the other.
The two principal Chinese trade authorities for foreign commerce
in Canton were the Viceroy of the Two Kuang Provinces,
Kuangtung and Kuangsi, and the Uoppo, an independent
commissioner appointed from Peking as superintendent of the
foreign customs.
Lord Napier was chosen as the first representative of the
British Crown. His instructions ran as follows " Your Lordship
-will announce your arrival at Canton by letters to the Viceroy.
In addition to fostering and protecting trade at Canton, it will
be one of your principal objects to ascertain whether it may not
be practicable to extend the trade to other parts of the Chinese
•dominions. It is obvious that with a view to the attainment of
this object the establishment of direct communications with the
Court of Peking would be most desirable. "
I>ispute between the Chinese Authorities and Lord
Napier.
Lord Napier was never able to carry out these instructions.
Upon his arrival at Canton the local authorities refused to have
126 A SEBTCH OF CHINRSB HISTORY.
dealings with him, giving as their reason that they preferred to
carry on commercial relations as heretofore, and were unwilling
to enter into any diplomatic relations with outside nations.
They saw that a King's representative would stand on an entirely
different footing from a superintendent of trade, and accordingly
declined to receive him. A still further reason for the Ghineso
disliking the new modus vivendi was because it would necessitate
the English representative dealing with the Viceroy directly
instead of through the Cohong.
Lord Napier found himself in an awkward position. He
made frequent attempts to present the letters from his government
to the Chinese authorities, but in every instance he received a
rebuff. His insistance upon residing at the foreign factories at
Canton led to the Chinese placing an embargo upon all foreign
trade, and Lord Napier and his countrymen found themselves
virtually prisoners in the foreign settlement. Although he
protested vigorously against the restriction of- trade and of the
liberties of his countrymen, it was all to no purpose. There was
no common standing ground between the two parties in the
dispute. The Chinese, accustomed to regard themselves as superior
to all other nations, could see no reason why they should deal on
terms of equality with the representative of the British Empire^
Lord Napier on his part could see no reason why his demands
should not be granted, as he was asking no * more than any
country in Europe would readily concede.
Finally, as relations became more strained, two British men*
of-war were ordered up to protect the foreign factories outside of
Canton. Shortly after the frigates had anchored in a position
from which they could secure the safety of the lives and property
of the English, Lord Napier, owing to a breakdown in his healthy
was forced to retire to Macao, and there await further instructions
from home. After reaching Macao he sank rapidly, and died on
October 11th, 1834.
A 8KBTCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 12T
Upon Lord Napier's retirement, the Chinese, believing that
they had succeeded in carrying their contention that trade was
to be carried on in the old way, removed all restrictions to-
commerce^ and for a while peaceful relations with the English
merchants were resumed.
The Appointment of Captain Charles Eiiiot (A.D. 1836).
In 1836 Captain Elliot was commissioned to take up the work
of Lord Napier. According to the instructions from his home
government, he was .to communicate with the authorities directly
and not through the Cohong, and was not to head his communica-
tions with the Chinese character '* p'in, " meaning petition, which
would imply that what was asked for was petitioned by an
inferior from a superior. At the same time he was admonished to
be conciliatory in manner.
Upon arrival at Canton similar difficulties confronted him as
had stood in the way of Lord Napier. Captain Elliot lacked the
decision of character of his predecessor, and yielded to the
demand that his communication should be presented to the
Chinese authorities through the Chinese Cohong. His compliance
with this request, however, did not make his path any smoother,
and matters came to such a deadlock between the Chinese and the
English, that he was obliged to retire as Lord Napier had done to-
Macao.
The Opium Question.
In the commerce between China and foreign countries the
balance of trade was against China, her imports exceeding her
exports to the amount of £2,000,000. This caused great anxiety
to the Chinese authorities, who, as we have already said, argued
that foreign trade was impoverishing their country. The principal
article imported into the country was opium, and so, apart from all
moral considerations, upon purely financial grounds, the opinion
was growing that a stop must be put to the influx of the drug.
Furthermore, with the growth of the opium habit its evil effects
128 A SKETCH OF CHINKSB HISTORY.
"ifvere making themselves apparent, and many of the Chinese
-officials opposed its importation principally on the grounds that it
was doing most serious harm to the people of China.
At Canton the trade in opium was repeatedly declared to be
illegal, but no strenuous effort was made to arrest it, and it was
well known that the Viceroy and the Hoppo actively connived at
it, and even took part in it themselves. Smuggling went on all
.along the coast, and many of the leading officials were addicted to
the opium habit.
At Peking the question of legalizing or prohibiting the trade
was warmly debated. The Empress, with her party, was in favor
•of legalizing it, and of thus obtaining an increased revenue, while
the Emperor advocated its entire suppression. The latter policy
finally prevailed, and it was determined to exterminate the trade
entirely, using force if necessary.
The Appointment of Commissioner Lin (A.D. 1839).
The Imperial Commissioner Lin Tsfe-hsii was appointed with
full powers and sent to Canton for the purpose of putting an end
to this traffic. He arrived at his post on March 10th, 1839. He
was a man of great energy and determination, and it soon became
apparent that an earnest effort was about to be put forth to
exterminate the opium trade. Commissioner Lin was entirely
sincere in his belief that opium was demoralising -the Chinese
people, and is rightly considered by his countrymen as one of
China's real patriots. He was also a man of conservative spirit,
and utterly opposed to all foreign trade, considering it to be
injurious to his country. Shortly after Commissioner Lin's
arrival, Captain Elliot returned to Canton from Macao in the hope
of being able to enter into negotiations on behalf of his
countrymen. He found himself and all the foreigners shut up in
H:he factories outside of Canton, the Chinese cutting off all
communication with the outside world from the land side, and
taking steps to prevent all foreign vessels from leaving their
^anchorage.
A 8&BT0H 07: OHINESS HISTORY. 129'
The ready complianoe of Captain Elliot with the Com*'
missioner's demand for the haqding over of the opium led to a^
belief that he would yield to still farther demands, and accordingly
the attempt was now made to enforce the regulation that foreigners
gnilty of crime must submit to Chinese penal legislation, involving
capital punishment by Chinese forms of trial. A case in point
arose after a disturbance made on shore by some foreign sailors
in. which a Chinese was killed. The Commissioner demanded from
Captain Elliot the surrender for execution of the alleged English
murderer. Upon Captain Elliot's protesting that it was impossible
for him to discover the criminal among a large number of sailors of
different nationalities who had been granted leave to go on shore,
and who had taken part in the rioting, Commissioner Lin responded
by issuing an ultimatum giving ten days for the surrender of the
murderer, and threatening that if he was not handed over in that
time the British community outside of Canton would be attacked.
Thereupon the foreigners living in the factories were obliged to
flee to Macao, but upon their arrival there the Portuguese, incited
by the Chinese authorities, refused to allow them to land.
This demand of Commissioner Lin's was a natural one from
the Chinese standpoint, for in all their dealings with foreigners
they regarded themselves as having the superior civilization. It
was just as natural, however, for the foreigners to resist the demand,
for they knew that many of the Chinese forms of punishment
were barbarous and that foreigners would have little hope of a
fair trial if handed over to the mercies of a Chinese court.
The tension had now become so great that a collision was
inevitable. The Chinese began to make preparations for war, and
after the arrival of two British ships, a naval engagement was
fought at Chuan-pi in which a number of Chinese junks were
destroyed and sunk.
Ttie Oause of the War.
Before giving a brief account of the war it will be well to
state clearly its real cause. It is to be regretted perhaps, that the
10
130 A SKBTCH OF CHINKSS HISTORY.
war is generally known as the Opium War, for although the
destruction of the opium was made by the British Government a
casus helliy yet, apart from the opium traffic, there were causes
leading inevitably to an open rupture between the two nations.
The British claimed that their object in going to war was to
get reparation for insults to traders, to exact compensation for the
losses their merchants had sustained, and to obtain security for
foreign residents in China ; but even this does not state the real
question at issue. The first war with China was but the beginning
of a struggle between the extreme East and the West, the East
refusing to treat on terms of equality, diplomatically or com-
mercially, with Western nations, and the West insisting on its
right to be so treated. All attempts at peaceful negotiations had
failed, and the only resource left seemed to be the appeal to war.
The forcing of the opium trade on China cannot be justified on
any grounds, but even if there had been no opium question,
sooner or later a rupture between China and the West must have
occurred.
The Profl:ress of the War.
The operations of the war lasted about three years, from
1840-1843. During the spring of 1840, military and naval
forces equipped in England and India as&embled on the coast
of China. Among the ships sent out were several small light
draft iron steamers, the most famous of which was the Nemesis.
As these craft drew but little water, they were most serviceable
to the English in the river engagements around Canton. The
blockade of the Canton River was declared on the 28th of June
1840 by Commodore Sir Gordon Bremer.
A few days later the command of the fleet was assumed
by Rear-Admiral the Hon. George Elliot, who was appointed
joint plenipotentiary with Captain Charles Elliot. An attempt
was made by the English to enter into negotiations with the
Imperial Government through other channels than those at Canton.
A SKETCH OF OHIKESK HISTORY. 131
A frigate was despatched to Amoy, but the local officials refused
to receive a letter from the British Admiral, and ordered an
attack on the boat bringing it to shore. In retaliation the frigate
opened fire on the Chinese batteries and war junks, and then
returned to Hong Kong.
The Eiifi^iish fleet proceeds Northward.
At about the same time the English made a successful attack
on Ting-hai, the chief town in the Chusan Archipelago, ofiF
Ningpo, and then an attempt was made to deliver the letter from
the English Government to the authorities at Peking by way of
Ningpo, but this also proved a failure. Next, Hangchou Bay
and the mouth of the Yangtsze were blockaded by the British
fleet, and some vessels proceeded Northward to the mouth of the
Peiho. This last demonstration caused the Chinese authorities much
consternation as it brought the enemy within striking distance of
the Capital, and the Court was induced to send an official named
Kishen to parley with Captain Elliot, and to receive the letter
from the British Government. The first object of Kishen, an able
diplomat, was to induce the foreign forces to withdraw, and this
be succeeded in doing by promising to enter into negotiations at
Canton. The foreign vessels accordingly withdrew to Chusan.
Hostilities around Oanton and proposals of peace.
In the meantime, Commissioner Lin had been strengthening
the fortifications of Canton and preparing to defend the city. A
Chinese army which had been collected in the neighborhood of
Macao was attacked and dispersed by a small British force, and
in consequence Lin was recalled to Peking in disgrace, and
Kishen was appointed Commissioner in his place. Admiral Elliot
being invalided. Captain Elliot was left for a time as sole
plenipotentiary representing the British Government. In the
negotiations which followed but little was accomplished, and
finally Sir Gordon Bremer, who in the meantime had been
appointed joint plenipotentiary with Captain Elliot, assumed the
offensive and attacked the outer forts of the Canton River.
182 A SKBTCS OF 0HINE8& HI8T0&T.
While he "was preparing to assault the inner forts the Chinese
asked for a trace, and negotiations were resumed between Eishen
and Oaptain Jllliot at Macao. As the result of the conference it
was agreed that Hong Kong should be ceded to the British, that
the Chinese should pay an indemnity of $6,000,000, that direct
oflScial intercourse on terms of equality should be granted to the
English, and that trade should be resumed within ten days.
These terms of peace were forwarded to Peking, but were
indignantly rejected by the war party at the Capital, Kishen was
degraded, and Chinese troops were ordered to proceed to Canton
and Chusan to drive out the invaders.
The terms of peace having been refused. Captain Elliot put
the matter into Commodore Bremer's hands, and that officer once
more captured the Bogue Forts at the mouth of the Canton Kiver.
Then followed in quick succession a medley of peace and war, at
times there were hostilities, but these were often suspended by
truces so that trade might be carried on. Captain Elliot seems
always to have been disinclined to push the Chinese to extremities.
The Chinese made good use of these lulls in the storm to further
their preparations for the defence of Canton, and began to mass
troops in the neighborhood of the city.
Renewal of the War.
On May 21st the signal for the renewal of the war was given
by the Chinese floating down on the falling tide a number of fire
rafts for the purpose of destroying the British ships lying at
anchor. This scheme failed to accomplish its object, some of the
rafts getting aground and setting Are to the village hats along the
shore. The British retaliated by capturing the inner forts and by
destroying a fleet of war junks.
At this stage the Chinese demolished and pillaged the British
factories outside of Canton.
The firet attack on Oanton.
The burning of the factories incited the British to make an
attack on the city of Canton, and on May 26th the heights in the
A SKXTOH OF CHIIIBSE filSTOBY. i4&
'rear of the city were taken. Just 'before the assatilt Captaia
Elliot agreed to a trace to discass the cohditioiis on which (^e
. British forces would retire from Oanton. It was arranged that the
' Chinese and Manchn troops, of whom there were some 45|000,
should evacuate the city, and that the atitfaorities should pay .a
ransom of $ 6,000,000. In return the British were to restore the
Chinese forts, with the proTiso that the forts below Whampoa were
not to be re-armed until the final conclusion of peace.
Neither the Chinese nor the British Government was pleased
with this arrangement. Captain Elliot was recalled and Sir Henry
.Pottinger was appointed as plenipotentiary in his place, and Yice-
Admiral Sir William Parker was appointed to take command «of
the British fleet
The War carried to the North.
Sir Henry Potlinger had been instructed not to enter into
negotiations with the Provincial authorities, but to treat directly
with the Imperial Government. Upon his arrival in China, he
determined to carry the war to the North. Amoy, Chinhai,
Chapu, NingpOy Wusung, and Shanghai were taken in quick
succession. At the Wusung forts, located at the entrance to the
river upon which Shanghai is situated, the Chinese General made
a brave but fruitless resistance. The Chinese defence of all these
places was far from conten^ptibl^, but failed owing to the antiquity
of the methods of warfare used, and the inefficiency of their
weapons.
The British fleet proceeded up the Yangtsze Biver, and
bombarded Chinkiang, an important city at the junction of the
Yangtsze with the Grand Canal. Although the place was defended
with courage by the 'Man6hu garrison, after a severe struggle, in
which many Chinese were killed, it was finally tdken by the British.
ISie' low state of patriotism in China at that day was evidenced by
the 'fact that while 'the bombardment of Chinkiang was in
'progress, the Chinese officials of Iching, a city on the opposite side
of the river, having learnt that there was no mtenti<Mi on the part
131 ▲ 8KBTCH OF CHINS8B HISTORY.
of the British to attack their city, vied with one another in
showing hospitality and courtesy to the invaders.
After taking Chinkiang, an advance was made on Nanking,
at which place the expedition arrived on August 9th, 1842. When
this strategic centre of the Empire was reached, the Chinese at last
accepted the inevitable, and appointed Commissioners to treat for
terms of peace with Sir Henry Pottinger. The two Imperial
Commissioners were men of the highest rank, Ilipn and Ki-ying
by name, both being Manchus.
The occupation of the Yangtsze compelled the Chinese to sue
for the cessation of hostilities because it threatened most seriously
the Imperial treasury by putting a check to the tribute supplies
carried to the Capital by way of the Yangtsze and the Grand Canal.
The Treaty of Nankins: (Aufl:ust 29th, 1842).
The first treaty between China and Great Britain, known as
the Treaty of Nanking, was concluded on August 29th, 1842.
Its principal provisions are as follows : —
1. There was to be lasting peace between the two nations.
2. Canton, Amoy, Foochou, Ningpo, and Shanghai were to
be opened to foreign trade as Treaty Ports.
3. The Island of Hong Kong was to be ceded to Great Britain.
4—7. An indemnity of $21,000,000 was to be paid,
$6,000,000 as the value of the opium destroyed, $ 3,000,000 on
account of debts due to British subjects for the destruction of their
property, and $ 12,000,000 for the expenses of the war.
8. All British prisoners were to be released.
9. The Emperor was to grant full amnesty to all of his
subjects who had helped the enemy.
10. Fair tariff rates were to be imposed at the Treaty Ports.
11. Official correspondence was to be carried on on equal terms.
12. The places held by the British were to be evacuated as
the indemnity was paid.
A SKETCH OF CHINBSS HISTORY. 135
The Treaty was ratified at Peking as soon as it was forwarded,
and was brought to Hong Kong by Ki-ying in June 1843.
Sir Henry Pottinger was made first Governor of Hong Kong
by the British Government, and, after long negotiations, arranged
with the Chinese Plenipotentiaries regulations for the carrying on
of the foreign trade at the Treaty Ports.
The fruits of England's victories were shared by other nations,
for a short time after the conclusion of the Treaty of Nanking, a
French Minister, and later a representative of the United States,
the Hon. Caleb Cushing, appeared at Canton and negotiated
treaties similar to the one made between Great Britain and China.
Oonditlon of Affairs after the Olose of the War.
Although the war was at an end and the demands of the
English had been granted, intercourse between China and foreign
nations did not by any means become a smooth and easy matter.
The people of China were far from acquiescing quietly in what
their authorities had done, and liked the foreigners no better than
before.
Ki-ying, the High Commissioner, although a man of good
faith, regarded the treaty as one that had been wrested by force
from the Chinese Government, and the Chinese officials generally
. looked forward to the time when they might free themselves from
this new foreign incubus.
Riots around Oanton.
At Canton, where the people had always been unusually
anti-foreign, difficulties were constantly arising between the
Chinese and the English^ and within three months after the
signing of the Treaty, placards were posted about the villages
inciting the populace to violence, and an organized attack on the
British factories was made, resulting in the burning of the
buildings. The Chinese authorises, when asked to suppress these
disturbances, declared that they were powerless before the mob and
dared not coerce the Canton populace. For similar reasons they
urged the English not to insist upon carrying out the article of the
136 ▲ SKBTOH t>F OHINIBBE BISTORT.
'treaty allowing them free access to Canton, prophesying a serious
uprising if they should attempt to do so.
Negotiations between Ki-ylns and 8lr ilohn Davie.
Matters came to a crisis in 1847 when an English party of
six narrowly escaped being murdered by a Chinese mob «t
Fatshan, a town near Canton. At this time, Lord Palmerston
had become chief in the British Foreign Office, and he instructed
• Sir John Davis, who had succeeded Sir Henry Pottinger as
Governor of Hong Kong, to take steps for the purpose of putting
an end to these disturbances and for the rigid carrying out of the
0?reaty. Thereupon Sir John Davis requested the English Admiral
and General in command at Hong Kong to proceed to the seat of
the late disturbances and to make reprisals on the spot. The
British Commander captured the Bogue Forts and took up:.a
strong offensive position opposite the walls of Canton.
Ki-ying, alarmed at the aspect affairs had assumed, entered
into negotiations with Sir John Davis, over whom he succeeded in
gaining a great diplomatic victory, for in return for the assurance
that no further trouble should be allowed to arise, he persuaded
the English to defer for another two years the date in the article
.giving them free entry into Canton.
A few months later six young Englishmen were caught by sa
mob at Haang-cha-ki, three miles from Canton, and cruelly put
to death. The Viceroy of Canton at that time was Teh Ming-
.sh6n, a man who was avowedly anti-foreign, and there can be but
little doubt that the people, taking their one from him, had been
encouraged to commit this act of violence.
The High Commissioner, Ki-ying, being a far more sagacious
nian, promptly ordered the capture and decapitation of the leaders
of the riot, and so averted for a short time a collision between tiie
two nations.
The new Treaty'Porte.
Of the new Treaty Potts, Shanghai at first was the only one
of any importance as regards foreign trade. For some time .the
. ▲ I BKBTCH . Cnr : OHINBS B . HISTORY. '^ 137
relations between the people of Shanghai and the foreigners were
•qnite amicable. In 1848 a serious distaH)ance arose at a place
•called Tsingpn. A party of three missionaries while visiting
the town were attacked by some of the discharged crews of the
gOTcrnment grain junks, and came very near losing their lives.
The British Consul at Shanghai, Mr. Alcock, demanded reparation
from the Chinese authorities, and upon their delaying to grant this
he ordered the commander of a British man-of-war at Wusung to
blockade the harbour and prevent the grain junks carrying tribute
rice to Peking, and the war junks from weighing anchor an\l
leaving their moorings. The commander of H.M.S. Childers
•detained 1,400 rice junks in the harbour at Wusung, and in this
way much pressure was brought to bear on the Taotai of Shanghai
to settle the dispute. At the same time the British Yice-Consul
-was dispatched on H.M.S. Espiegle to Nanking to interview the
Viceroy of Kiangnan (the Provinces of 'Kiangsu/Kiangsi, and
Anhui), and to lay before him a formal complaint. Upon
^representation the matter was promptly attended to. Full redress
was ordered, and the culprits were seized and punished. After
this the former peaceable relations between the people of Shanghai
4ind the foreigners were resumed.
138 ▲ SKSTOH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
CHAPTER XIX.
The First Stage of the T'aiping Rebellion
(A.D. 1850— 1860).
A
Accession cf the Emperor Hsien Feng (A.D. 1861).
Tao Kuang was sacceeded by his fourth son, known from the*
title of his reign as Hsien F6ng. This young prince was only
nineteen years of age when he came to the throne, and owing to his
inexperience and lack of ability was ill prepared to cope with the-
dijBEicult problems which soon confronted him. Like his father he-
was politically conservative, and thought that the best way to-
advance the prosperity of China was to resist all attempts on the
part of foreigners to gain an entrance into the Empire. Ki-ying,
who had been very instrumental in keeping peace between the
Chinese and the English in the South, was recalled to Peking, and
replaced by a man of more conservative type.
Hung Hslu-ch'uatiy the originator of the T'aipin^
Rebellion.
Hung Hsiu-ch^iian, who afterward became the leader of the
T'aiping Rebellion, was born in 1813 in a village near Canton.
He was of lowly origin, being the son of a Hakka* farmer. As a
youth he devoted himself to study, being ambitious to obtain the
coveted degree of Bachelor of Arts at the Literary Examinations.
He made three attempts to gain this honor, but in each was
unsuccessful. His failure preyed so much upon his mind, that his
health was affected and for a time he was so ill that his life was-
despaired of. During his illness he had a dream in which he saw
* Hakka means stranger and is the name given to those settlers in th»
Kuangtnng Province who came into it from the North.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 139
the Almightj enter his room, place a sword in his hand, and
command him to begin a crusade for the extermination of the
worship of devils. He was convejed to the Palace of the
Almighty, washed in a river, and had his heart taken cat and
replaced by a new one.
After his recovery from this illness he studied some Christian
tracts which had fallen into his hands when he was on a visit to
Canton for the purpose of passing the examinations, and from the
perusal of these he became convinced that he had discovered the
meaning of his dream. He applied for baptism, but although he
was for a time under Christian instruction, he was never formally
admitted into the Church. He converted his own household to his
views, and then his neighbors, and after a short time a band of
followers gathered about him, and an association was formed
called the " Shang Ti Hui, " that is, the society for the worship of
the Almighty.
The new movement met with marked success in the Province
of Kuangsi, where with iconoclastic zeal idols were destroyed and
temples razed to the ground. Such was the beginning of the
T'aiping movement. In its earlier stages it much resembled the
religious crusade of the Prophet Mahomet.
It was not in its inception a political movement, but was
afterward compelled from force of circumstances to assume a
hostile attitude towards the government. The Imperial Govern-
ment, fearing that the new movement might become revolutionary,
sent two commissioners named Tahungah and Saishangah, to
suppress it, and this attempt to use force incited the followers of
Hung to declare open rebellion, and to take up the cry,
'* Exterminate the Manchus.^'
The First Successes of the Rebels^
In 1850 the rebels seized and fortified the market town of
Lien-chu in Kuangsi, and shortly afterward the towns, Tai-tsun,
Yung-an, and Nan-ning fell into their hands. As nothing succeeds
like success, the consequence of these victories was to draw a large
140 A SKBTOH or 0HIN1B8B HISTaBT.
namber of followers to the vebel standard, many of whom weee
inspired bj no other motiTe than that of' plunder. The rebdlion
when it assumed such serious proportions caused great alarm in
Canton^ and apprehending that the city was about to be attack^ ,
active preparations were made for resisting u siege.
The rebellion is known in history as the T^aiping, the name
' being derived from the Chinese characters meaning ^' GreatPeaoe,^'
but the rebels were called by their countrymen the *^ Chang-nsao/'
that is '* the long-haired ones/' on account of their abandoningtthe
practice of living the froiit parts of their heads^ the aign of sub-
mission to the Manchus, and of allowing their hair to grow long.
The '8prMUf c/T the Rebellion to the Yanstese Valley
CA.D. 18S2).
The lack of a food supply rendered it impossible for the reb^
to subsist long in the Province of Kuangsi, and accordingly tiieir
leader Hung decided to advance to the North. He led his
followers across the Northern frontiers of Kuangtung into
Hunan^ and striking the Hsiai^g Biver followed its course,
capturing all the cities on its banks. At Ch'ang-sha, the capital
of the Province, he met with his first serious check. The city wes
defended by Ts^ng Kuo-fan, the Governor of the Province, and
under him held out very bravely. After spending eighty days
in the futile attempt to take it, Hung, becoming discouraged,
abandoned the seige and marched on to the Yangtsze River. He
crossed the T'ung-ting Lake, and entering the Yangtsze valley
passed down the river until he came to Han^yang and Wuchang.
.These cities were taken by storo), and shortly afterwards
An-ch4ng and Kiukiang suffered the same fate. In March 1858
the City of Nanking was captured, and was selected as theaiieof
the Capital of the new Dynasty. AH along the Yangtsze, the
.Iniperial troops seem to have been utterly demoralized, and
unable to offer any vigorous resistance to the advanee
of the rebels. When Nanking was captured, a general massacre
ensued, and women and children as well as men were put to death
in the most cruel manner.
A SK8T0H OF CHIMBSS HISTORY. 141
The Rebels In Nanklni;*
Shortly after establishing his Capital, Hung, who claimed to
be the brother of Christ, assumed the title of " Heavenly King,'*
and published a book of Celestial Decrees purporting to be
revelations given him by God. In these Decrees, God is spoken
of as the Heavenly Father, and Christ as the Celestial Brother.
At the time of the taking of Nanking, the number of rebels
had grown to 80,000 and was constantly on the increase. A
government was established. Hung was proclaimed Emperor of
China and his Dynasty was to be known as the T'aiping. Four
Assistant ''Wangs/' or Kings, were appointed to help in the rule
of the Empire, and were called the Kings of the North, South,
East, and West.
Hung, himself, in his Capital soon sank back into obscurity,
and instead of continuing to be the energetic leader gave himself
up to unbridled license, surrounding himself with a large harem
and leaving the direction of affairs in the hands of his
subordinates.
He was visited at his Court by some foreigners, among whom
were several missionaries, who at first had been inclined to favor
the movement, and to look upon it as a religious crusade,
promising much for the future of China. These sanguine ideas
were rudely dispelled when they discovered the reign of disorder
in Nanking and the fanaticism of those enlisted in the rebellion.
The Advance on Peking (A.D. 1853).
In March 1853 a column of the rebels was despatched to the
North to try an issue with the Imperial forces at the Capital.
This detachment failed in an attempt to seize K'ai-fdng Fu in
Honan, and after traversing the Province of Shansi, advanced
to Tsing-hai, a place twenty miles distant from Tientsin, where
they strongly entrenched themselves. In the attack on Tientsin,
they were repulsed by the Manchu General Sankolinsin, a man
who afterward played an important part in the second war with
Great Britain. Disheartened by this failure the rebels were
142 A SKBTCH OF OHINISB HISTORY.
afraid to press on to Peking, and not waiting for the arrival of a
second column which was advancing to reinforce them, they
began their retreat to Nanking. At this juncture, Li Hung-chang
made his first appearance on the stage of history. Actuated by
patriotic motives, he raised at his own expense a regiment of
militia in Anhui, and began with this force to harass the rear-
guard of the rebels. In reward for his services, TsSng Kuo-fan
became his patron, and introduced him to Imperial favor.
Although frustrated in their attempt to take Peking, the
rebels for a time controlled the Yangtsze valley from Ichang
to Yangchou. Gradually, however, the Imperial troops gathered
fresh courage, and after repeated struggles some of the cities on
the Yangtsze were retaken from the rebels, and the T'aipings
were confined to the narrow strip of country between Nanking
and An-ch*ing. Both of these cities were closely beleaguered by
Imperial armies.
Here, however, we must leave for a time the account of the
T'aiping Rebellion and turn our attention to the events transpiring
in the South, which brought about the second war between China
and Great Britain.
A SKBTCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 143
CHAPTER XX.
The Second War between China and
Great Britain (A.D. 1856-1860),
Events leadlnf up to the War.
As has been alrea Jy stated, there was constant friction between
the Cantonese and the English merchants in the South. The
Chinese were determined to evade as long as possible the carrying
out of that part of the Treaty of Nanking which consented to the
opening of the city of Canton to foreigners. Sir John Davis had
arranged with Ki-ying that the city was to be thrown open at the
latest on April 6th, 1849, but as that date drew near, the Chinese
authorities showed great disinclination to comply with this
arrangement, giving as their reason for desiring a further
postponement, the fear that it might lead to a serious uprising of
the people in the city, with whom the agreement was very
unpopular.
When Sir John Bowring became Governor of Hong Kong, he
attempted to arrange a meeting with the Imperial Commissioner
Yeh within the city walls, but his request for an interview was
declined, and Yeh made the counter proposal that the meeting
should take place at a point without the city walls.
While matters were at this critical stage, Mr. Harry Parkes
(afterwards Sir Harry Parkes) was appointed English consul at
Canton. He was a man of indomitable spirit, and from the
beginning of his career was bent on forcing the Chinese to yield
to the demands of his countrymen. Commissioner Yeh remained
firm in his attitude, however, and would not hold any direct
communication with the English Consul within the city walls.
144 A. SKBTCH OF OHINBSB HISTO&T.
The Case of the Lorcha "Arrow" (A.D. 1866).
The extreme state of tension between the Chinese and the^
English could not last long without leading to serious difficulties^
and in October 1856 an event occurred which precipitated
hostilities. The English Government at Hong Kong in order to
facilitate the trade of the Chinese colonists of the Island, granted^
under certain restrictions, the right to Chinese vessels to sail
under the English flag. A lorcha^ that is a vessel with European
hulk and Chinese rigging, named the ''Arrow," registered at
Hongkong, commanded by an Irish officer, and flying the English
flag, was boarded, while lying at anchor at Whampoa, by
Chinese officials, and the flag was hauled down and twelve of the
crew carried off to a Chinese man-of-war as prisoners. Upon
hearing of this, Mr. Harry Parkes wrote to Commissioner Yah,
demanding an aplogy for the insult to the flag and the return of
the men to the ship from which they had been taken. This
demand was evaded and gave rise to a long controversy. The
Chinese claimed that one of the crew was the father of a well-
known pirate whose arrest had long been sought, and also denied
that the English flag had been flying when the vessel was boarded.
Later, it was further stated that the lorcha had no right to bo
flying the English flag, as her license has expired some months
before. These excuses were not allowed by the English, because
it was distinctly stated in Article 9 of the Supplementary Treaty of
Nanking between China and Great Britain, that all Chinese
oflFenders in the service of the British should be claimed through
the British authorities, and also because the expiration of the
license could not have been known to the Chinese Anthorities at
the time of the seizure of the Chinese crew.
Commissioner Yeh finally proposed to send back nine of the
men, and to keep the other three, claiming that one of the three
was a notorious criminal, and that the other two were important
witnesses. He paid no attention to the demand for an apology, as
he claimed that no insult to the British flag had taken place.
A SKBTCH OF OHIKBBB HISTORY. 145
Mr. Harry Parkes refused to receive the nine men and insisted that
all should be returned to the vessel from which they had been
taken, and that the apology should be made. Commissioner Teh
then consented to the sending back of the twelve men» but not
in the manner required ; at the same time he demanded that
Mr. Parkes should return two of them, but sent no proper officer
to assist in conducting the necessary examination of the accused
men before the British consul. Mr. Parkes refused to settle the
matter in this way, and the English made preparations to resort to
force.
The Causes of the War.
The case of the *^ Arrow" is usually cited as the casus belli in
the Second War between China and Great Britain, and undoubtedly
it was the immediate cause of the outbreak of hostilities, but at the
same time it may be confidently asserted that even if there had
been no incident of this character, this second rupture between the
two nations was bound sooner or later to have occurred. The
standpoints of the contending parties were so diflFerent that a
collision was inevitable. The Chinese still looked upon the
foreigners as beneath them in civilization, and would not treat
with them on terms of equality, and the foreigners considered that
the Chinese were resisting demands which they had the right to
make of any civilized nation — the right to carry on commerce freely
and to have their official representatives treated with respect. On
the part of the Chinese, dense ignorance of the civilization of the
West may be pleaded, but in many cases it was ignorance that
refused to be enlightened.
There were, in addition to ignorance, other causes leading the
Chinese to regard with disfavor the increase of foreign intercourse.
For instance, there was the coolie traffic of Macao. Chinese
coolies were constantly kidnapped and taken to Macao, and thence
sent off on the forced contract system to work in Cuba, Peru, and
Oialifornia. In this nefarious traffic, the Portuguese were the
greatest offenders. Another open sore was the continuance of the
11
146 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
smnggling of opium into China, although the trade had been
declared to be illegal ; and it was often carried on by ships of the
class to which the '* Arrow" belonged, which were protected by-
taking out licenses in Hongkong, and thus gaining the privilege of
flying the English flag.
The Progress of the War.
Sir John Bowring immediately authorized the capture of a
native junk by way of reprisal for the insult oflered to the British
flag, but this act led to no important results. Then Sir Michael
Seymour, in command of the British fleet, was ordered to take the
Bogue Forts leading to Canton. This was done, and in December
of the year 1856 all the fortifications on the Canton River were in
the hands of the British, and the city itself was bombarded, a part
of the wall seized, and one of the city gates taken. After
the yam^n of Commissioner Yeh had been shelled and destroyed.
Sir Michael Seymour, with Mr. Harry Parkes, entered the city and
visited the ruins of the yam^n. It was felt by the British that
their force was insufficient to hold the city for any length of time,
and so after this demonstration it was determined to withdraw
and to await the arrival of 5,000 troops which the British Govern-
ment had been petitioned to send.
The Chinese notwithstanding these reverses still remained
defiant, and as soon as the British Admiral left Canton hastened ta
repair the wall and to prepare for further resistance. Meanwhile
a price had been set on the heads of the English by Commissioner
Yeh, and in this way the populace became eager for war and were
incited to acts of violence.
The factories outside Canton were burnt to the ground, and
several Europeans were carried oflf and put to death.
At Hongkong *'more insidious weapons than steel or shot"
were used, for at the instigation of some of the Chinese authorities,,
the head baker of the colony put arsenic in the morning supply of
bread in order to poison all the foreigners. The attempt failed,.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 147
however, on account of an excessive amount of arsenic having
been used.
The fact that the English had withdrawn from Canton
naturally led the Chinese to believe that victory rested upon their
side, and accordingly helped to inspire them with increased
courage.
Reports of Chinese successes were sent to the Emperor Hsien
Feng, which induced him to allow Commissioner Yeh a free hand
in disposing of the troublesome foreigners.
The Appointment of Lord El^ln (A.D. 1857).
The British Government, in response to the appeal of Sir
Michael Seymour, appointed Lord Elgin as High Commissioner for
Great Britain, and transports with 5.000 troops were dispatched to
China. Lord Elgin on his way to China received news of the
outbreak of the mutiny in India. While at Singapore a letter
from Lord Canning, Governor-General of India, was received^
entreating him to send to India temporarily the forces intended
for the war in China. In response to this urgent appeal Lord
Elgin sent out dispatches far and wide, to divert the transports on
their way to China, and ordered them to proceed instead to India.
These troops were of great service at a critical juncture in India
and were replaced by a fresh expedition dispatched from England.
The Naval Encounters of 1857.
Meanwhile a number of minor naval engagements had taken
place between the. Chinese and the British. The month of May
1857 was marked by two expeditions, the first under Commodore
Elliot to Escape Creek, and the next under Admiral Seymour to
Fatshan. " The effect of these operations was the entire destruction
of the Chinese fleet of war-junks in the Canton waters."
The Attack on Canton.
The French Government, induced partly by the desire to seek
reparation for the massacre of a French missionary in the West
of Kuangsi, and partly by the spirit of Imperial aggrandizement
which had manifested itself under the rule of the Emperor
Napoleon III, had decided to join with the British in hostilities
148 A 8KBT0H OF OHINISB HISTORY.
against China, and Baron Gros was sent out at the head of a
French force to act in concert with Lord Elgin.
When the forces of both nations had arrived, an advance was
made on Canton. Lord Elgin, after prolonged ne^jotiations with
Commissioner Yeh, finally issued an ultimatum on Christmas Day
1857, demanding the evacuation of Canton in forty-eight hours by
the Tartar and Chinese garrisons, and threatening to attack the
city if the demand were refused. No answer having been
returned, the city was assaulted and taken after a brief struggle,
and the walls were occupied. A search was made in the city for
Commissioner Yeh, and he was finally captured in the act of
making his escape from one of the yam^ns. The commanders of
the allies then decided to send him as an exile to Calcutta, as they
believed there could be no peace while he was free to influence
the minds of his countrymen. Yeh up to the time of his death
resided in a villa in the surburbs of Calcutta.
After the city had been taken, a provisional government was
established consisting of the Chinese Governor Pikwei, Mr. Harry
Parkes, Colonel Holloway, and a French naval oflBcer named
Martineau. They ruled the city for three years, and during that
time order was maintained and the people enjoyed security of life
and property.
The Expedition to the North (A.D. 1858).
In the meantime Lord Elgin had addressed a letter to the chief
Secretary of State in Peking proposing that a Chinese Plenipo-
tentiary should be sent to Shanghai to meet with the foreign
Plenipotentiaries for the purpose of discussing terms of peace.
The answer, which was addressed not to Lord Elgin but to the
Viceroy of the Two Kiang Provinces, rejected the proposal and
appointed the new Viceroy of the Two Kuang Provinces as
peace negotiator.
Lord Elgin finding himself foiled in his attempt to enter into
direct negotiations with the government at the Capital, determined
to carry the war to the North, and the British and French fleets
A SKVTOH or CHINBSB HISTORY. 149
sailed to the mouth of the Peiho. Upon arriving there, the Taku
Forts were taken after a sharp conflict, and the way was thrown
open to Tientsin, Lord Elgin and Baron Gros were followed
by the American and Russian Ministers, bent upon making
treaties for their respective countries.
The Treaty of Tientsin (June 26th, 1868).
The Chinese now felt obliged to appoint peace commissioners,
and Kweiliang and Hwashana were sent from the Court to
confer with the invaders. They adopted a conciliatory attitude,
and after some dispute as to whether they had the proper
credentials to permit of their acting on behalf of the Emperor,
negotiations were begun. Ki-ying, who had taken so prominent a
part in the concluding of the Treaty of Nanking, was also sent
from the Court at Peking. The Government had entrusted to him
the diflScult task of inducing the foreign forces to retire from the
neighborhood of the Capital. As he failed in accomplishing this
object, he fell into disgrace with his Imperial Master, and was
condemned to death. In return for his past services, the sentence
was mitigated to the extent that he was allowed to commit suicide
in place of being executed. Finally the Treaty of Tientsin was
signed on June 26th, 1858. It contained fifty-six articles, the
most important of which are the following : —
(1.) — The British Government was to have the right to
appoint a resident Minister at the Court of Peking.
(2.) — In addition to the five Potts already opened to foreign
trade, Newchwang, ChefoOj Formosa, Swatow and Kiungchow, in
the Island of Hainan, were to become Treaty Ports, and British
ships were to be allowed to trade on the Yangtsze River.
(3.) — Permission was to be granted to foreigners to travel
with passports signed by their consuls in the interior of the
country.
(4.) — The Christian Religion was to be tolerated.
(5.) — The tariff fixed by the Treaty of Nanking was to be
revised. British subjects were to have the option of clearing their
150 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
goods of all transit duties by the payment of a single charge, to be
calculated as nearly as possible at the rate of 2^ per cent ad valorem,
(6.) — The Chinese were to pay the sum of 2,000,000 taels for
the losses at Canton, and an equal sum for the expenses of the
war.
The revision of the tariil took place at Shanghai and
was signed on November 8th, 1858. One important feature of it
was the legalization of the opium trade.
The most important article of the Treaty was undoubtedly the
one granting the right of the British Government to appoint a
minister to reside at the Capital, but this was the very one which
was not put into operation. The Chinese authorities represented
to Lord Elgin that an entry into Peking at that time by foreigners
would be most inexpedient and would probably result in serious
riots. Lord Elgin finally consented to ask his government to
waive for the time being the right of the residence of the British
Ambassador in Peking, and received as a quid pro quo the right to
cruise with some of his fleet up the Yangtsze as far as Hankow.
Lord Elfin's return to the South.
After a successful visit to Hankow, Wuchang, and Hanyang,
Lord Elgin returned to the South. As there was every indication
that the new treaty would not be observed by the people of
Canton, and as frequent attacks were made by the Chinese braves
on the forces- of the Allies, a^ series of expeditions were undertaken
in the neighborhood of Canton for the sake of putting down the
disturbances. At this time the West River was explored, and
quiet was restored in Canton.
The Attempt to exchange the Ratifications of the Treaty
(A.D. 1859).
In the following year it was necessary for the British
Government to send an Ambassador to Peking for the purpose of
exchanging the ratifications of the Treaty. Mr. Frederick Bruce
(afterwards Sir Frederick Bruce) Lord Elgin's brother, who had
acted in the capacity of secretary in the expedition of 1858, was
appointed for this purpose, and sailed from England with Queen
A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 151
Victoria's ratification, and his letters of credence as first British
Minister to China. Upon his arrival at Shanghai he was met by
Kweiliang and Hwashana, who strove to dissuade him, and the
French, American, and Russian Ministers who had joined him,
from proceeding to Peking, representing that the ratifications could
be exchanged at Shanghai just as well as at the Capital. At this
time the Hon. J. E. Ward had been appointed as United States
Minister. The foreign Ministers all refused to accede to this
request, and based their refusal on the grounds that the original
Treaty called for the exchange of the ratifications at the Capital.
Accordingly the British fleet determined to proceed to
Tientsin. Upon arrival there it was discovered that the Taku
Forts had been strongly fortified, and that the mouth of the Peiho
had been blocked by barriers consisting of large stakes bound
together with heavy chains.
A proposal was made by the Chinese authorities both to
Mr. Ward, the U.S. Minister, and to Admiral Hope, in command
of the British fleet, that the Ambassadors should land at Pehtang,
t^n miles up the coast, and that from that place a Chinese force
should escort them overland to Peking. The foreign Ministers
refused to comply with this suggestion on the ground that in this
way they would be yielding their right to make a peaceful
expedition to the Capital by the usual route, and would put their
countries in the position of suppliants of China and not of those
dealing with her on equal terms. It is to be remembered that the
route proposed by the Chinese was the time-honored road by
which the tribute bearers from Annam, Looohoo, and other
tributaries of China, travelled.
Defeat of the British and French at Taku.
During the night of June 23rd, one of the booms was blown
up by the British, and on the following morning Admiral Hope
attempted to force the passage with thirteen vessels. The forts
immediately opened fire, with the result that two of the British
gunboats were sunk, and many men and officers wounded. Then
152 A 8KBT0H OF 0HINB6B HI8T0BT.
a detachment of marines and sappers was landed to attempt the
capture of the forts, hot as the men got quagmired in the mad,
and were exposed to a withering fire from the forts, they were
repulsed and forced to retire. It was during the engagement off
the Taku forts that Captain Tatnall, the commander of the
American ship, though nominally occupying a position of
neutrality in the conflict, commanded his men to help tow some
boat loads of British marines to the rescue of the hard pressed
British Admiral. He gave as his excuse for this breach of the
laws of neutrality, that "blood is thicker than water."
Ward's visit to Peking:.
After the engagement, Mr. Ward, the U.S. Minister,
proceeded to Pehtang, and was sent forward with a Chinese escort
to Peking. When he arrived outside the walls of the Capital, the
old discussion in regard to the "kow-tow" was revived. As no
satisfactory arrangements could be made, Mr. Ward finally lefl
without being admitted to the presence of the Emperor, and the
ratifications of the American Treaty were exchanged at Pehtang.
The 8eeond Battle at the Mouth ol" the Pelho (A.D. i860).
The British and French were not long in retaliating for their
repulse at Taku. A formidable expedition was equipped both
by Great Britain and France, and Lord Elgin and Baron Qros
were reappointed as Plenipotentiaries.
The British contingent consisted of 13,000 men, principally
Indian troops, and were commanded by Sir Hope Grant. The
French had 7,000 men under the command of General Montauban.
The naval forces were commanded respectively by Vice-Admiral
Sir James Hope and Admiral Page.
The British fleet assembled at Talienwan, and the French at
Ghefoo. At first there was considerable discussion between the
Allies as to the plan of attack to be adopted, but it was finally
decided to take Pehtang first and then assault the Taku Forts from
the rear. These tactics disconcerted the Chinese a good deal as
they had not expected an attack from this quarter.
A SKBTOH or OHINXSB BISTORT. 153
Pehtang was taken without much difficulty, and then the
Allies marched on to Tangku. The country had been flooded and
entrenchments thrown up to protect the rear of the forts. The
Chinese cavalry resisted the advance of the enemy very bravely,
but they were no match for the Sikh Lancers. The General
Sankolinsin, who some years before had opposed the forces of the
T'aiping Rebels so sucessfully in their attack on Tientsin, was in
command of the Chinese forces, and his presence did much to
inspire them with hopes of victory.
But Tangku was taken by the Allies and then preparations
were made for the assault on the Taku Forts. At this time
Hang-fu, the Viceroy of Chihli, attempted to enter into
negotiations with Lord Elgin, but the latter would come to no
terms until reparation had been made by the Chinese for the
previous attack on the allied fleet off Taku, the letter and the spirit
of the Treaty of Tientsin fulfilled, and an indemnity promised for
the cost of the expedition. As no terms could be reached, the
attack on the forts was begun. A vigorous defence was made by
the Chinese, who stood to their guns most manfully, even after a
terrible explosion had taken place in one of the forts. A native
corps of Cantonese coolies helped the Allies in the work of planting
the scaling ladders on the walls of the forts, and seemed to feel no
scruples in assisting the foreigners against their own countrymen.
After one of the forts on the Northern bank of the river had been
taken, the other Northern fort hoisted the white flag, and the three
forts on the Southern bank of the river soon followed its example.
This was on August 21st, 1860.
When the forts had been captured, the way to Tientsin lay
open, and the obstructions having been removed, the fleet advanced
np the river.
At this stage of the proceedings Kweiliang was commissioned
by the Chinese Government to make peace in conj auction with the
Viceroy Hang-fu.
154 A SKETCH OF CHINESE BISTORT.
Lord Elgin demanded three things (1) an apology for the
previous attack on the allied fleet, (2) the ratification and
execution of the Tientsin Treaty, and (3) an indemnity for the
expenses of the naval and military expeditions. The French
made similar demands.
As the Chinese Commissioners did not really possess plenipo-
tentiary powers and did not dare to comply with all these
demands, the allied force began its march on Peking.
The Advance on Peking.
When the expedition had arrived half-way to the Capital, a
letter from Tsai, Prince of I, was received proposing peace, but
Lord Elgin refused to treat until he had reached Tungchou. Mr.
Wade and Mr. Harry Parkes were sent in advance to Tungchou to
negotiate a preliminary convention with the Chinese Commissioners
of peace. They held a conference with Prince Tsai, and it was
arranged that the Allies should advance to Chang-kia-wan, some
five miles from Tungchou, and remain there while the foreign
Ambassadors proceeded to Peking with a small force. Mr. Parkes
returned from Tungchou to the army and reported these arrange-
ments to his superiors, and then in company with another young
Englishman named Loch, and several other oflBcers, set out for
Tungchou again to make final arrangements.
Capture of Parkes and Loch.
After arriving at Tungchou the second time they perceived a
change in the tone of Prince Tsai, who, in the conference held with
Parkes, opposed very strenuously the desire of Lord Elgin to
present an autograph letter from Queen Victoria to the Emperor
at the Capital. While returning to the army, Parkes and Loch
discovered that the Chinese had placed an ambuscade of 80,000
men around the proposed camping ground of the Allies at
Chang-kia-wan. Parkes immediately sent Loch to report the
matter to Sir Hope Grant, and to warn him of his danger, while
he himself returned to Tungchou to seek another interview with
Prince Tsai, and to demand an explanation of the presence of this
A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 155
large body of Chinese troops. Loch after delivering his message
went to rejoin Parkes at Tungchou with a small escort.
When they tried to make their* way back to the British
army, they were taken prisoners. They were treated with great
indignity, and upon demanding to see Prince Tsai, were sent
bound to Tungchdtt, and thence forwarded to Peking, where at
first they were confined with the lowest criminals in the prison
of the Board of Punishments. Altogether, twenty-three men
belonging to the British army, and thirteen belonging to the
French army, fell into the hands of the Chinese.
Battles of Chan£-kla-wan and Palichiao.
In the meantime a battle had been fought at Chang-kia-wan
between the Chinese and the Allies. The Chinese evidently had
determined to make one more bold stand before yielding to the
demands of the foreigners. In the engagement the Tartar cavalry
behaved with much courage, but were finally put to fight by
the Sikhs.
Sankolinsin rallied his retreating troops at a place called
Palichiao, and a second unsuccessful engagement was fought. The
French General, who acted with conspicuous bravery on this
occasion and through whose efforts the Allies won the victory
was afterwards known by his countrymen as the Comte de
Palichiao.
Flight of the Emperor and Negotiations witli Prince
Kung.
While the Allies were marching on Peking the Emperor fled
to Jehol, and Prince Kung, his brother, was left to arrange terms
with the enemy.
When Prince Kung tried to open negotiations the Allies
refused to treat, laying down as an absolute condition that the
foreign prisoners must be returned before there could be any talk
of peace.
The French force advanced on the Yuan-ming-yuan Palace,
and took possession of it, Prince Kung fleeing for safety. The
156 k 8&BTCH OF OHIKBSB HIBTORT.
Palace was then sacked and looted of its valaable curiosities by
both French and British troops. Finally, Prince Kung consented
to the return of the prisoners. Parkes and Loch were set free, and
eight cavalrymen and one French officer, all who survived the
tortures suflFered in prison, were released. By way of vengeance
for the deaths of the other captured prisoneA, Lord Elgin gave
orders for the burning of the Summer Palace, and this beautiful
group of buildings was ruthlessly committed to the flames.
Treaty of Pekin^^y October 22ncl 1860.
Although the Court at Jehol was still desirous of continuing
the struggle. Prince Kung realized the futility of such a course,
and entered into negotiations for peace with Lord Elgin and Baron
Gros. A new Treaty was drawn up and signed in the Hall of
Ceremonies on October 22nd, 1860, and the Treaty of Tientsin
was ratified. The new British Convention demanded (I) a
payment of 8,000,000 taels indemnity, (2) that permission should
be given to Chinese subjects to emigrate at will as contract
laborers or otherwise, (3) that Kowloon should be ceded to the
British Government and become a part of Hongkong, and (4) that
Tientsin should be opened as a treaty port. The French conven-
tion contained an extra article to the effect that an indemnity
should be paid for all churches, schools, cemeteries, lands, and
buildings previously owned by persecuted native Christians, and
that the money should be paid to the French representative at
Peking for transmission to the Christians at the localities concerned.
The fulfillment of this article became in the future a great cause of
irritation to the Chinese, especially as much of the property in
question had long ago passed into the hands of those who had
acquired it by purchase. In the Chinese draft of the French
Treaty another clause was surreptitiously introduced, which granted
to the missionaries the right to buy land, erect buildings, and to
reside in the interior. This clause is not found in the French
version of the Treaty, the one which was to be regarded as the
authoritative version, but although it was illegal yet it was often
A 8KBT0H OF CHINESE HISTORY. 157
appealed to as granting special privileges to the missionaries, and
became the basis for further demands. It was never distinctly
repudiated by the Chinese authorities. Owing to the approach of
winter the allied force after leaving a garrison at Tientsin and the
Taku Forts departed for Shanghai.
The Coup d'etat of Prince Kung,
Prince Kung did all in his power to persuade the Emperor
Hsien Feng to return to Peking, but in this he was unsuccessful.
•Shortly afterward, the health of the Emperor failed, and his eldest
son, known from the title of his reign as, T'ung Chih, a child of
four years, was appointed as heir-apparent. After the death of
Hsien Feng, the Court returned to the Capital. This was a
critical moment for Prince Kung, for everything depended upon
whether the anti-foreign party of the Court or Prince Kung's
party should obtain the control of the Government. Prince Kung
managed to come to an arrangement with the two Empresses-
Dowager, Tsi-an, the wife of Hsien Feng, and Tsi Thsi, the mother
of T^ung Chih, and by a coup cVetat arrested and put to death the
leaders of the anti-foreign party, among whom was Prince Tsai.
Prince Kung and the Empresses-Dowager then virtually ruled the
Empire.
The Establishment of the Tsun^^-ll Yamen.
The Hon. Frederick Bruce was left as British Minister at
Peking, and M. Bourboulon as French Minister, but owing to
want of suitable quarters they did not actually take up their
residence in the Capital until the spring of the following year
(1861).
In order to facilitate communications with Foreign countries,
by Imperial decree a department of Foreign aflfairs, the Tsung-li
YamSn, was at this time created by the Chinese Government.
The three original members were Prince Kung, Kweiliang, and
Wfinsiang.
158 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
CHAPTER XXI.
The Second Stage of the T^aiping Rebellion
(A.D. 1 862- 1 864).
The Campaigns of Chutist Wans^.
We must now return to the narrative of the T*aiping
Bebellion. As we have already stated, at the outbreak of
hostilities between the Chinese and the Allied forces, the territory
held by the T'aipings had been reduced to the narrow strip of
country on the Yangtsze between Nanking and An-Ch'ing.
As the war had the effect of withdrawing many of the
Imperial troops to the North, the rebels availed themselves of the
opportunity to extend their sphere of operations.
Although Tien Wang had given himself up to a life of
debauchery in Nanking, his able general Chung Wang, "Faithful
Prince," by his skilful military tactics continued to gain many
important victories. He cut his way out from Nanking through
the lines of the Imperialist army, then under the command of
Ts^ng Kuo-fan, and having collected a large force at Wuhu,
captured the important city of Huichou in the Southern part of the
Province of Anhui. Next he took Hangchou, and then laid siege
to Soochou. He was recalled to Nanking by Tien Wang to
operate against the Imperial forces surrounding the city, and
succeeded in defeating them with great loss, 5,000 of their best
troops being slain in the battle. After this, Chung Wang returned
to Soochou, and having routed at some little distance to the North
of the city the Imperialist forces under the command of Chang
Kuo-liang, Tseng Kuo-fan's most efl5clent general, he advanced
along the Grand Canal and captured Wusieh.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 159
The Rebels gain possession of the Peninsula formed
by the Yan^sze and the Han^ chou Bay.
When the comanders of the Allies had collected their forces at
Shanghai, previous to their expedition to the North, Ho, the
Viceroy of the Two Kiang Provinces, besought their help against
the rebels, but naturally at that time his request had been refused,
although it was agreed that a small force should be left to assist
in the defense of Shanghai.
In a very short space of time, Soochou, Tsing-pu, and T^ai-
ts*ang fell into the hands of Chung Wang, and with the exception
of Shanghai almost the whole of the peninsula formed by the
Yangtsze River and the Hangchou Bay was occupied by the rebels.
Employment of Forels^ners to help suppress the Rebellion.
The Chinese in Shanghai formed a patriotic association to
resist the rebels, and at the suggestion of Li Hung-chang, who
had become Governor of Kiangsu, engaged the services of two
Americans, Ward and Burgevine, to organize a force of
Europeans and Manilamen to fight the rebels. A company
numbering about 200 men, consisting of sailors who had deserted
their ships, adventurers, etc., was collected, and with this motley
crew Ward made an attack on Sungkiang. In his first attempt he
was unsuccessful, but afterward, with the assistance of the
Imperialist forces, he succeeded in gaining possession of the city.
Next he attempted to take Tsingpu, but here he suffered defeat,
owing to the fact that his forces were attacked in the rear by the
army of Chung Wang. During the engagement he himself was
severely wounded. In August of 1860, Chung Wang advanced on
Shanghai, but the European troops in garrison mounted the walls
of the native city and repulsed the attack with a withering fire
from their guns. The rebels were forced to retire, but in their
retreat devasted the country for many miles round about.
Admiral Hope's visit to Nanicin^.
When the Allied Forces, after the conclusion of the Treaty of
Peking, returned from the North, Admiral Hope went up to.
160 ▲ SKBTCH OF OHINBSB HI8T0BT.
Nanking to paj'- a visit to Tien Wang, and entered into an
arrangement with him by which the safety of Shanghai was assured
from attacks by the rebels on condition that the English and other
foreigners remained neutral, and gave no assistance to the
Imperialists.
OrBranization of the "Ever Victorious Army."
In the meantime Ward had been preparing to make a second
attack on Tsingpu, but he was arrested by the foreign authorities,
who feared that the continuance of his operations would disturb
the concordat lately made with the rebel chief. Ward claimed
that he was a citizen of China, and was accordingly released. Not
being permitted to employ foreigners, he immediately proceeded to
organize a new force composed of Chinese troops commanded by
foreign officers. This force was the nucleus of what was afterward
known as *'the Ever Victorious Army."
The Aliieci Forces assume the offensive SLgalnst the
Rebels.
After Ningpo fell into the hands of the rebels and another
attempt on Shanghai had been threatened, the British commanders
realized that no faith could be placed in the rebel chieFs
promises, and that the policy of neutrality had been a mistake.
Admiral Hope paid a second visit to Nanking, and returned to
Shanghai strongly convinced that the wiser course was to take the
side of the Imperialists, and that only in this way could the safety
of Shanghai be secured.
Ward had made his headquarters at Sungkiang, and sallying
out thence had won many victories over the rebels with his newly
organized force. The British and French Admirals now agreed to
act in concert with him and to make an attempt to clear the
country of rebels within a thirty mile radius around Shanghai.
By the close of 1862 this had been accomplished, but during
the campaign Ward had been killed in an attack on the town of
Tseki. Gordon, who subsequently succeeded him, eulogized him
in the following terms, ^* He was a brave, clear-headed man, much
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 161
liked by the Chiuese mandarins, and a very fit man for the
command of the force he had raised.'*
Tho Appointment of Major Gordon.
After Ward's death, Bargevine succeeded to the command
of the *'Ever Victorious Army," but soon got into difficulties
with the Chinese officials. He was haughty and overbearing in
manner, and was not trusted by Li Hung-chang. In order to
remove him from the Province of Kiangsu, Li requested him to
lead his troops to Nanking, to assist the Imperialist forces in the
siege of that city. This Burgevine positively refused to do, unless
the arrears in the wages of his troops should first be paid. This
demand led to a serious altercation between Burgevine and the
heads of the patriotic association in Shanghai, resulting finally in
. Burgevine's being dismissed from the Chiuese service.
For a short time the forces raised by Ward were under the
command of Captain Holland, a British officer. Under him,
however, they were not very successful, and were repulsed by the
rebels at T'ai-ts'ang.
The command was then oflFered to Captain Gordon, who
accepted it with the permission of the British Government.
Gordon's Campaign.
When Gordon took command of the "Ever Victorious Army"
it had already been in the field two years and the men were
veterans in warfare. He, however, infused new life into the corps.
He divided it into five regiments of infantry and one of artillery,
each having about 600 men. The officers were foreigners of
yarious nationalities, and the non-commissioned officers were
Chinese.
The thirty mile radius having been secured, it was now
possible to carry the war into the regions beyond. Gordon's
object was to take Soochou, and as a first step towards this he
determined to attack K^un-shan.
While advancing on K'un-shan a message came from Li
Hung-chang urging him to proceed to T^ai-ts^ang to avenge the
12
162 A SKBTOH OF CHIKBSB HISTORY.
death of Li's brother and his Hananese braves. These troops, who
had come from An-ch'ing after that citj had been retaken bj the
Imperialists, had been decoyed into the city of T'ai-ts'ang and
ruthlessly massacred. The rebels had used the following ruse. A
number of them shaved their heads, and pretending to go over to
the Imperialist side, oflFered to lead some of the attacking force
into the city and thus enable them to secure possession of it. No
sooner had the Imperialists been enticed within the gates, however,
than the rebels turned upon them and slaughtered every
man.
After severe fightinor, Gordon succeeded in capturing
T'ai-ts'ang. Then, owing to the fact that his soldiers were heavily
burdened with loot, he found it necessary to return to his head-
quarters at Sungkiang before making an attack on K'un-shan.
At K'un-shan a mutiny occurred because Gordon appointed
an English officer in charge of the commissariat, and many of the
soldiers refused to march to K^un-shan. Gordon announced that
he would march on the following day with or without the
mutineers, and that those who did not answer to their names at the
end of the first half day's march would be dismissed. This display
of firmness caused the mutineers to fall into line.
On arriving at K^un-shan he acted in concert with General
Ching, who had been holding the enemy and watching them.
Gordon determined to attack the West and General Ching the
East Gate. By attacking on the West, the enemy's line of retreat
to Soochou was eflfectually cut off. In the assault on the city,
much help was rendered by the " Hyson," a light draft steamer
admirably fitted for service on the canals of the Kiangsu
Province.
After K^un-shan had fallen, Gordon decided to make it his
headquarters. This change was not, however, popular with the
Chinese troops, who were reluctant to leave Sungkiang, and so a
Second mutiny broke out in the ranks. Gordon commanded the
ringleaders to be shot, and thus order was quickly restored.
A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORT^*. 163
The Attack on Soochou.
K^nn-shan, the key to Soochou, having been taken, the next
move was an advance on that city.
At this time Gordon meditated resigning his command*
Some disagreement with Li Hung-chang, and the fact that the
pay of his troops was in arrears, inclined him to take this step*.
He returned to Shanghai to carry out this purpose, but on
arriving there he heard that Burgevine had gone over to the side
of the rebels, and this news decided him to continue in his.
command. He immediately rode back to K^nn-shan, arriving on
the evening of the day he had left for Shanghai.
The advance on Soochou began at once. Upon his arrival at
the city, Burgevine, who had joined the rebel forces there,
attempted to enter into negotiations with him, and proposed that
Gordon and himself should take Soochou and then advance on
Peking, overthrow the Dynasty, and establish an Empire for
themselves. Gordon, a man of high honor, indignantly rejected
these proposals.
As the T^aipings greatly outnumbered the Imperialists, the
capture of Soochou was a difficult undertaking. Chung Wang
had also come from Nanking to Soochou to give his support to
the rebels, and his presence was said to be always eqi^al to 5,000
men. After a long siege and a continuous bonibardment, a party
within the city showed signs of readiness to surrender, but Mu
Wang, one of the rebel leaders, was bitterly opposed to this policy.
This caused dissension among those within the city and resulted in
open strife. In, the fighting between the two factions of the
rebels, Mu Wang was assassinated. Finally, the other Wangs, or
rebel chiefs, consented to capitulate, but did so on the under-
sikanding that their own lives were to be spared. Gordon promised
them protection, and Li Hung-chang assented.
After the city had surrendered, these Wangs were invited to
a meeting with Li Hung-chang, when they were treacherously
seized and decapitated. In consequence of this breach of faith on
164 A SKETCH OF OHIKESB HISTOBT.
the part of his associate, Gordon resigned his command, and
refused to receive a gift of 10,000 taels sent to him by Imperial
order. Althoagh this act of treachery on the part of Li Hung-
chang ¥ras morally indefensible, yet, as a stroke of policy it was
probably wise, for as long as the Wangs lived they would have
continued to foment rebellion and there could have been little hope
of peace in Kiangsu Province. After a time Gordon consented to
resume his command. He did so because he feared that unless the
advantages already gained were promptly followed up, the war
might be indefinitely prolonged. An advance was made on the
city of Ch'ang-chou, and after the fall of that place the
Kiangsu peninsula was entirely restored to the hands of the
Imperialists.
The Fall ol" Nankin^r.
The last stronghold of the rebels, the city of Nanking, wa&
then closely invested by the Imperialist forces. The rebels being
hard pressed for food, were obliged to send out their women and
children, Tseng Kuo-fan having promised to spare their lives*
Greatly to his credit, this promise was well observed.
A part of the city wall having been blown up by the explosion
of a mine, the Imperialists forced an entrance through the breach
jnto the city. As the city fell, Tien Wang ended his life by taking
poison. Chung Wang and the young son of Tien Wang tried to
make their escape, but were captured in their flight and brought
back to the city. The son of Tien Wang was executed at once,
but Chung Wang was allowed time to finish the memoirs he was
writing and was then sent to the execution ground.
Gordon said of the latter that he was ^^the bravest, most
talented, and enterprising leader the rebels had. He was the only
rebel chief whose death was to be regretted; the others, his
followers, were a ruthless set of bandit chiefs."
With the fall of Nanking, the great rebellion came to an end.
During its progress, over twenty millions of lives had been,
sacrificed, and many of the fairest Provinces of the Empire
A SKETCH OF CHUTBSB HISTOBT. 165
devastated. To this day the ruins found in the cities occupied by
the rebels testify to their ruthless vandalism.
The " Ever Victorious Army " was at once disbanded, for Li
HungH3hang fearing lest it might become too powerful, declined
to take the advice of Gordon and make it the nucleus of a regular
standing army.
The Dispute ever the Flotilla of Boats.
During the course of the rebellion, Prince Kung had commis-
sioned Mr. H. N. Lay, an Englishman, who had been appointed
Lispector of the Imperial Customs, to purchase some small gunboats
in England to serve as the beginning of a Chinese navy of foreign
built vessels. These ships were built in England and brought out
to China by Captain Shererd Osbom of the British Navy. When
the fleet of eight vessels arrived, a dispute arose between Prince
Kung and Mr. Lay as to whether the vessels were to be under the
control of the central government in Peking or of the Provincial
authorities. Mr. Lay insisted that Captain Osbom should receive
orders from Peking alone, through himself, and also resented the
appointment of a Chinese Naval Officer of equal rank with Captain
Osborn to be in joint command of the fleet. The Chinese naturally
insisted that they should decide how the fleet purchased by them
was to be commanded, and refused to take over the vessels on
any other conditions. The consequences of this altercation was
that the fleet remained idle during the rebellion, the time when
it would have been of the greatest use.
It was finally agreed to send the fleet back to England to be
disposed of, and Mr. Lay was dismissed from his position as
Inspector General of Customs. In this post he was succeeded by
Mr. (afterward Sir) Robert Hart.
l66 A SKETCH or 0HINB8B HISTORY.
CHAPTER XXII.
Important Events succeeding the Suppression
OF the Rebellion (A.D. 1867- 1882).
other Rebellions In the Rel^n of T*ung Chlh.
In 1867, an Imperial army wa« sent into Yunnan to put down
a formidable rebellion. This was an attempt on the part of the
Mohammedan population to set up a government of their own.
They were incited to take this step by the unjust treatment
Teceived at the hands of the Chinese officials, and in order to
resist a plot which they claimed was on foot to put to death all the
followers of the Prophet.
The rebels seized the cities of Ta-li-fu and Yun-nan-fu, and
their leader took the title of Sultan Suleiman, and sent a mission
to England to seek from the British Government recognition
of himself as an independent sovereign.
The rebellion was finally suppressed, Ta-li-fu being taken and
the garrison ruthlessly massacred.
Shortly afterward a serious rebellion occurred in Shensi and
Kansuh, owing to an attempt on the part of the Chinese to
slaughter all the Mohammedan population in these Provinces.
The rebellion spread until the restless tribes in Central Asia
became involved, and a chief named Buzurg Khan set up his
standard in Kashgaria. Buzurg proving incapable of controlling
the movement, Yakoob Beg, his lieutenant, assumed the command.
Owing to the disturbance spreading into Russian territory, the
Russians sent a force to occupy the valley of Hi, and took the
opportunity in 1871 of establishing a government in the Chinese
city of Kuldja.
A SESTOH OF CHINESE HISTOBT. 167
Shensi and Kansnh were finally pacified by the Chinese
G-eneral Tso Tsung-t^ang, but the restoration of Chinese rule in
Kashgaria did not take place until a later date.
Mr. Burilns^hame's Mission.
In 1867, the Chinese Government sent its first embassy to
foreign countries. It consisted of three envoys, two Chinese and
one foreigner, the Hon. Anson Burlinghame, who had been Minister
of the United States to China. The Embassy proceeded first to the
United States, and thence to Great Britain and the Continents
Mr. Burlinghame's aim was to present China in a more favorable
light to Western countries, and to induce them to treat her with
greater leniency. He spoke of the prospects of great reforms
about to take place in the Empire in the immediate future, and
thus unintentionally gave a wrong impression as to the desire of
the Chinese people for the adoption of progressive measures. His
mission was brought ^to an unhappy end by his death in
St. Petersburg in 1870.
Even while the mission was in progress, serious anti-foreign
riots took place in Tangchou. and in Formosa against foreign
missionaries and merchants, demonstrating that the feeling of the
Chinese people toward foreigners had not materially altered.
The Tientsin Massacre.
In June 1870 there occurred in Tientsin an anti-foreign riot
of larger dimensions than any that had thus far taken place.
The French Roman Catholics had become very unpopular in
China owing to their enforcement of the article in the Treaty of
Peking in regard to privileges to be given to the Christian Church,
and especially of the clause as to the payment of indemnities
for property destroyed or confiscated in the past. The minds of
the people had also been much inflamed by the publication and
circulation of a book entitled " Death Blow to Corrupt Doctrines,"
which called for the extermination of the Christian Religion.
The immediate cause of the outbreak was the spread of stories
in regard to the Roman Catholic Orphanage. It was rumored
168 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
that the Sisters of Charity were in the habit of kidnapping children,
and of taking out their hearts and eyes for the purpose of making
medicine. In order to disprove these reports a committee
consisting of five of the Chinese Qentry was permitted to
examine the premises of the Orphanage, but the French Consul,
who happened to be present at the time^ resented this investigation,
and with much rudeness drove the committee of inquiry into the
streets. This roused the fury of the mob, which had assembled
outside the Orphanage, to a high pitch of excitement, and an attack
was made on the French Consulate. The French Consul hastened
to the YamSn of Ch'ung-hon, the Superintendent of Foreign
Trade, to ask for assistance. The Superintendent asserted that he
was powerless to render any aid, inasmuch as he had no
authority over the mandarins or the military forces in Tientsin,
who were all under the control of the Viceroy of the Province,
Tseng Kuo-fan, then resident in P'ao-ting Fu. Although Ch^ung-
hou advised the French Consul to remain at the Yam^n until the
storm had blown over, that official was unwilling to be guided by
him, and went out into the streets to return to the Orphanage.
On the way, he was set upon by the crowd and beaten to death.
Then followed the massacre of the Sisters of Charity and th«
burning of the Orphanage and the French Cathedral. Altogether
some twenty foreigners were killed, along with a great number of
their native assistants.
The Foreign Ministers demanded the punishment of the
officials who had made no attempt to quell the mob. After
prolonged negotiations it was agreed that the Prefect of Tientsin
and the District Magistrate should be banished, and that some of
those supposed to be the ringleaders of the riot should be
decapitated. The sum of 400,000 taels was given as compensation
money, and Ch'ung-hou was sent on a mission to France to make
apologies to the French Government. After the settlement, the
Chinese Government made a proposal to curtail missionary
privileges. This was directed principally against the Roman
A SKBTCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 169
Catholic practice of separating themselves and their converts from
the jurisdiction of the local officials, and against the reclamation
of alleged sites of ancient churches. These proposals were,
however, rejected, and the Chinese grievance against the Roman
Catholic Church remained unhealed.
The First Imperial Audience.
On October 16th, 1872, the Emperor T'ung Chih was
married with great ceremony, and as he now assumed the reins of
Government and the regency of the Empress-mother came to an
end, the question of holding an audience of the Foreign Ministers
was once more mooted. The Chinese yielded the privilege, but
managed to arrange matters so that the audience was held in the
hall for receiving tributary nations, the "Pavilion of Purple
Light." The audience was held on June 29th, 1873. The actual
reception of the Foreign Ministers by the Emperor himself seemed
at the time to be a great step in advance, and many sanguine
expectations were entertained as to the better understanding that
was about to arise between China and the West. These, however,
were not destined to be realized in the immediate future.
Closing Events of the Reiffn of T^n^^ Chih.
The last years of the reign of T^ung Chih were, as we have
seen, full of trouble. There was much disorder throughout the
country, and great misery was caused by a famine in Shensi and
Kansuh, and by the overflow of the Yellow River.
A war cloud arose on the horizon in 1868 owing to a
difficulty with Japan caused by the Chinese putting to death some
lioochoo sailors who had been shipwrecked off the coast of
Formosa.
At first, the Chinese refused compensation to the Japanese
Government for this act of violence, on the ground that the
Loochoos were the vassals of China, but after the Japanese had
landed a force in Formosa and had threatened to begin hostilities,
an amicable arrangement was entered into between the two
governments, the Chinese agreeing to pay 500,000 taels indemnity*
170 A SKETCH OF OHINBSB HISTORY.
On account of the Chinese yielding in this dispute, the Japanese
were enabled a little later to make a bold claim for the possession
of the Loochoo Islands, and against this claim China, having
already waived her rights once, was unable to make any effective
resistance.
The Death of T'ung Chih.
T'ung Chih died on January 12th, 1875, and a serious
question arose as to who should be his successor. The son of
Prince Kung should naturally have succeeded, as T^ung Chih had
died without leaving any son. There were, however, two
difficulties in the way of this arrangement. First, if the son of
Prince Kung assumed the Imperial dignity, it would be necessary
for the father to retire from office, for according to Chinese custom
no father can serve under his own son, and second, as the son of
Prince Kung was of age the Empress-mother of T'ung Chih could
no longer act as the power behind the throne, a position which she
had continued to hold even after her nominal retirement from
the regency.
The Succession of Kuans: Hsti (A.D. 1876).
By means of a coup d'Stat on the part of T^ung Chih's
mother, the infant son of Prince Ch'un, who was the youngest
brother of Hsien F6ng, was conveyed into the Palace and
proclaimed Emperor. The mother of this child was own sister to
T'ung Chih's mother, and thus the latter by enthroning her
nephew managed to obtain another long lease of power. The new
Emperor was placed on the throne as the adopted son of T'ung
Chih, with the Dynastic title of Kuang Hsii.
The wife of T^ung Chih, A-lu-te, was pregnant at the time of
her husband's death, but died without giving birth to her child.
From that time to this, the Empress Dowager has virtually ruled
over the Empire. In a short time Prince Kung was deposed from
all his offices, and Li Hung-chang came into prominence as the
chief adviser of the Government.
A SEBTOH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 171
The Murder of Mr. Marsrary.
After the conquest of Barmah bj the British, and the conclu-
sion of the treaty with the King of Bnrmah in 1862, there was
a desire on the part of the English to penetrate the mountainous
country dividing Burmah from China, and to open up a trade
route into Yiinnan. An expedition was sent out under Colonel
Sladen, which penetrated as far as Bhamo, but then was forced to
t;urn back. In 1874, the Indian Government, acting under
instructions from the British Home Government, dispatched an
expedition under Colonel Browne to proceed into Yiinnan by
way of Bhamo, and it was arranged that at the same time,
Mr. A. B. Margary, of H.B.M's Consular Service, should set out
and travel overland through China and meet the expedition at
Bhamo. Then he was to act as interpreter and conduct it through
Yunnan and overland to Hankow. Mr. Margary accomplished
his journey successfully, and met Colonel Browne at the
appointed rendezvous. Hearing that there was to be armed
opposition made to the attempt to cross the mountains, Margary
volunteered to go on in advance to discover whether these
reports had any foundation. At Manwyne, however, the first
city within Chinese territory, he was treacherously assassinated,
and Colonel Browne's expedition was attacked and driven back
by bands of armed natives.
Attempts te Investlsrate the Murder.
Sir Thomas Wade, the British Minister at Peking, took up the
case and made strenuous efforts to discover upon whom the guilt of
the crime rested. The British wished to hold Ts*en Yu-ying, the
Governor of Yiinnan, responsible, but the Chinese Government
shielded him, and attributed the crime to the natives of the
Province, who, they claimed, were stirred up to commit the
murder by their unwillingness to grant a trade route for foreign
commerce through their territory.
Although a commission consisting of three Chinese and three
British officials was sent to Yiinnan to investigate the matter on
172 A SEBTCH OF CHINB6B BISTORT.
the spot, it was never really cleared up, aad remaias a mystery to
this day.
After prolonged negotiations with the Tsung-li YamSn, Sir
Thomas Wade at last determined to leave Peking and proceed
to Shanghai where he could be in direct telegraphic communication
with his Home Government, and advise it to use forcible measures
to bring about a settlement of the question. This step led the
Chinese, for the sake of avoiding a possible war, to consent to
come to an arrangement satisfactory to both parties, and accord-
ingly Li Hung-chang was appointed Commissioner to confer with
Sir Thomas Wade at Chefoo. The result of this conference was
the Chefoo Convention.
The Chefoo Convention (A.D. 1876).
The principal articles of the agreement were as follows : —
(1.)-— A compensation of 200,000 taels was to be paid for the
murder of Mr. Margary and the other officers, and for the expenses
to which the British had been put on account of the Yiinnan case.
(2.) — Proclamations were to be posted throughout the Empire
enjoining that Englishmen were everywhere to be protected.
(8.) — An Embassy was to be dispatched to London to express
regret for the deplorable incident.
(4.) — An arrangement was to be made as to the opium traffic.
British merchants, when opium was brought into port, were obliged
to report it to the Castoms, and then could deposit it in bond,
either in a warehouse or in a receiving hulk, until such times
as there was a sale for it. The importer must then pay the tariff
duty on it, and the purchasers the likin.
(5.) — The Chinese Government agreed that Transit Duty
Certificates should be framed under one rule at all ports.
Four new ports, Ichang, Wuhu, WSnchou, and Pakhoi wer©
to be opened to trade, and six ports of call on the Tangtsze to the
landing of foreign goods. This convention, because of the un-
willingness on the part of the foreign powers to consent to the
increased taxation, arising out of the proposition that a commu-
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 173
tation fee should be paid for all goods imported in lieu of the pay-
ment of likin duties, was not finally ratified until twelve years later.
The Dispute with Russia in regard to Kuldja.
We have already referred to the occupation of Kuldja by the
Bussians at the time of the uprising in Kashgaria. After the
trouble had been suppressed by General Tso Tsung-t*ang, a
demand was made upon Russia for the return of Kuldja, which
the Bussians had asserted they would occupy only until quiet had
been restored.
A high Manchu official, Ch'ung-hou, the same man who had
been Superintendent of Trade at the time of the Tientsin Massacre,
was sent to Bussia, where he concluded the Treaty of Livadia, by
which it was agreed to give to Bussia the most important part of
Ili with all the strong passes in the T'ien Shan Mountains, the city
of Yarkand, and five million roubles ; in return for which Bussia
was to restore Kuldja to China. This agreement was repudiated
at Peking, and Ch^ung-hou was arrested and sentenced to death,
from which fate he was saved only by Queen Victoria's intervening
on his behalf, and obtaining his pardon by means of a letter
addressed to the Emperor.
At this juncture the Chinese, fearing lest war might break
out with Bussia, invited General Gordon to return to China, and
take command of an army. When General Gordon arrived at
Peking, he counselled the Chinese Government to make peace
with their foe instead of going to war, and declined to enter the
Imperial service.
Treaty of St. Petersburfl^ (1881).
The Marquis TsSng, the son of Tsfeng Kuo-fan, was then sent
to Bussia to re-open the negotiations, and he succeeded in
concluding a Treaty at St. Petersburg in 1881 by which Ili was
returned to China with the exception of a Western strip, and nine
million roubles were paid to Bussia as an indemnity for her claims.
For his diplomatic skill in negotiating this treaty he earned great
praise from his countrymen.
174 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
Corea thrown open to tho Worid.
As far back as 15 92, after the war between China and Japan
in the reign of the Emperor Wan Li, a Japanese settlement had
been founded at Fusan, but this settlement had done nothing in
the way of opening Corea to foreign intercourse. The only-
connection which Corea had with the outer world was the sending
of a periodical embassy bearing tribute from Seoul to Peking. On
account of its isolation from the rest of the world it was spoken of
by foreigners as the Hermit Kingdom. One of these embassies on
its return to Corea brought some Christian tracts into the country,
which falling into the hands of some of the scholars led to the
founding of a quasi-Christian Sect. This paved the way for the
Homan Catholic Missionaries to enter Corea, and they soon
established a flourishing Church. Owing to the murder of some
French Missionaries, in 1866, the French Government sent a
small expedition to Corea to demand reparation. This expedition,
however, proved unsuccessful. In 1870, the United States
Government made an effort to open up Corea to foreign
intercourse, but although the forts commanding the entrance to
the Han River were taken, nothing permanent was accomplished.
Six years later a Japanese gun-boat, the Unyoken, was, without
any cause, attacked by the Coreans. The Japanese by way of
retaliation immediately dispatched an expedition into Corea, and
compelled the Corean Government to pay an indemnity, to open
the ports of Chemulpo, Gensan, and Fusan to foreign trade, and
to allow Japanese to reside in the country on the same terms as
those on which Europeans resided in Japan. Japanese settlements
soon grew up at Chemulpo and Gensan similar to the one at Fusan.
As Corea was a vassal to China, these inroads of the Japanese
caused a good deal of anxiety at the Court of Peking.
Finally the Chinese Government determined to neutralise tho
action of the Japanese by throwing open Corea to the whole world
under treaty. So in 1882, Corea emerged from her position of the
Hermit Nation and entered into treaty relations with other nations,
A 8KBTCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 175
although Corea was a vassal of China, the treaties which she
formed with Foreign Powers purported to be made by an
independent state, and this naturally gave rise to serious
misunderstandings in the future. China did not intend to
relinquish her claims over Corea, for she saw very clearly the
importance of retaining her control so as to resist Russian and
Japanese aggressions. The position of the country on her
North-East border rendered this policy necessary as a safeguard
to her own frontiers.
The Corean Imbroglio.
In 1882, the King of Corea being a weak ruler, the power
fell into the hands of his father, T'ai W6n Kun, who had acted as
regent during his son's minority. When the son came of age, the
father, anxious to retain his power, raised a conspiracy to
dethrone him. In connection with the plot a mob was let loose on
the Japanese Legation, and the Japanese were forced to fight their
way to the coast and take refuge on a British man-of-war. The
young King was made a prisoner by T'ai W^n Kun, and aa
attempt was made to assassinate the Queen.
The Chinese Government, acting on the advice of Li
Hung-chang, adopted prompt measures to suppress the disturbance.
A body of troops and a naval squadron were dispatched to Corea,
the conspiracy was put down, and the King restored to the throne.
T^ai Wen Kun was kidnapped by a clever ruse. He was invited
as a guest on board a Chinese man-of-war, taken prisoner, carried
oflF to China, and banished to P'ao-ting-fu in Chihli. The Chinese
troops remained in the neighborhood of the Capital, and a Chinese
resident, after the pattern of the British residents in India, was
installed at the Corean Court
Japan made demands for compensation, $500,000 being
claimed as an indemnity. A new Treaty Port was opened, and a
Corean Mission of Apology was sent to Japan. The Japanese also
obtained the right of keeping a permanent guard of soldiers at
iheir Legation.
176 A SKETCH OF CHINB&E HISTORY.
Strife between the Reform Party and the Conservatives.
Before long a foreign element began to be introduced into the
Corean administration, a branch of the Imperial Chinese Customs
was established, and other reforms were projected. This led to
serious riots in Seoul in 1885, and a bitter strife broke out
between the Reform Party and the Conservatives.
A party of the Conservatives, assisted by the Chinese troops,
assassinated several of the Liberal ministers and attacked the
Palace, which was guarded by the Japanese garrison. The
Japanese were forced to retire to their own Legation, and the
King was taken prisoner. Then the Japanese Legation was burned
and looted and the Minister and his staff were compelled to fight
their way to Chemulpo. In retaliation for this assault, the
Japanese Government immediately landed a force at Chemulpo,
and at the same time the Chinese sent an army to Seoul. Both
countries were bent on restoring peace in Corea, but there was
much danger of a collision between the two invading forces.
Aflrreement between China and Japan (1886).
Li Hung-chang and Count Ito of Japan entered into
negotiations at Tientsin, and it was agreed that both countries
should withdraw their troops from Corea within four months, and
that in case of any serious disturbance arising in the future, if
either country intended to send troops into Corea, previous notice
should be given to the other country, and also that neither country
should undertake a permanent occupation.
The British seise Pert Hamilten.
At this time Eussia made the disturbed condition of the
country an excuse for making a move towards the Northern
frontiers of Corea, and in order to maintain the balance of power,
the British fleet seized Port Hamilton, an island off the Souihera
coast of Corea, and the British Government asserted that if the
Russian occupation lasted, she would take permanent possession of
this foothold. In 1887, when affairs in Corea had quieted down,
the British Government withdrew from Port Hamilton with the
A SKSTGH OF CHINBSl HISTO&Y.
177
stipulation that under no circumstances was the island to be ceded
by China to any other foreign power.
13
178 A SKBTOH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
CHAPTER XXIII.
The War with France and succeeding
Events (A.D. 1884- 1894).
French Interference in Annam.
The beginning of French relations with Annam date back to
the time of Louis XV (1715). French missionaries had introduced
the knowledge of Christianity into the country, and had met with
considerable success in the way of gaining oonverts. From time
to time troubles arose between Christian converts and the other
natives, which led to the massacre of some of the French priests.
This gave France an excuse for interfering in the political affairs
of the country, and in 1858, owing to the refusal of the King
of Annam to carry out the terms of a treaty, the French fleet
destroyed the forts of Tourane and the town of Saigon. In 1864,
the King of Annam was obliged to cede Cochin China to France.
The French desire to annex Tons^ Kins.
After the Franco-Prussian war, in order to withdraw attention
from home affairs, the French Government directed its attention to
the fostering of schemes of colonization, and became desirous of
annexing Tong King, the territory lying to the North of
Annam, especially as by so doing it was expected that the rich
resources of Yunnan could be tapped by French merchants.
Accordingly one or two filibustering expeditions wore sent against
Hanoi, the Capital of the Province.
Annam and Tong King had for centuries been vassals of
China, and for a long time had sent Tribute Missions to Peking.
Hence, the King of Annam naturally appealed to the Emperor of
China and asked for protection against the French.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 179
Li Hung-chang was appointed Chinese representative to
carry on negotiations with France, and he finally agreed to hand
over to France all that portion of the country which was south of
the Songoi or Red River. This proposition was rejected, however,
both in Peking and in Paris. For ten years after this matters
remained in an unsatisfactory condition, the French being
aggressive and the Annamese exerting themselves to check their
inroads.
The French attack Sontay and Bacninh.
In 1884, the French troops threatened the important towns of
Sontay and Bacninh. These towns were garrisoned principally by
the Black Flags, a body of irregular Chinese troops which had
been engaged by the Annamese to assist them in the protection of
their country. The Marquis Tseng, then Chinese Ambassador at
Paris, informed the French Government that his country would
regard an attack on these two cities as a casus belli, Nevertheless
the attack was made, and the two cities were taken and occupied
by the French.
Convention at Tientsin.
Neither the Chinese nor the French were really desirous of
war, and an attempt was made to arrive at some mutually
acceptable arrangement by negotiation. A convention was held
between Li Hung-chang and Captain Fournier, of the French
Navy, at Tientsin, and it was arranged that the Chinese should
withdraw all troops from Tong King, and that the town of Langson
and some other places should be occupied by the French, and that
in return for this cession of territory the French should respect
China's southern boundary.
The Misunderstandinif as to the Evacuation of Lani^son.
The French immediately ordered Colonel Dugenne to advance
on Langson, but owing to the fact that the Chinese troops had not
received any instructions from Peking as to the time of the
evacuation of these places, they opposed the advance of the French
and repulsed them with heavy loss.
180 A. SKETCH or CHINES8 BISTORT.
This misanderstanding led to farther acts of hostility on both
sides. The French charged the Chinese with breach of faith, but
the Chinese claimed that no date had been specified in the
agreement, and that sufficient time had not been allowed to admit
of the Chinese troops withdrawing from Langson.
Admiral Courtet destroys the Chinese fleet at Foochou.
Admiral Courbet proceeded to attack Kilung in the North of
Formosa, but being unable to take it steamed across to Foochou
with his fleet. Presuminji^ on the fact that there had been no
formal declaration of war, he took his ships unresisted up the Min
Birer, past the formidable defences at the mouth.
In accordance with instructions received by telegram from his
government he then summoned the Chinese fleet and forts to
surrender, and upon their refusal he opened fire on the forts from
the rear, and up<Mi the Chinese fleet as it lay at anchor. The
Chinese being utterly unprepared for this act of treachery
were taken at a great disadvantage, and in a few minutest
their fleet was completely destroyed. Admiral Courbet then
returned to Formosa where he finally succeeded in taking Kilung^
The Pescadores Islands were also occupied by the French. In
Tong King a guerilla warfare was carried on, and the natives, with
the assistance of the ^' Black Flags," made so determined a
resistance that the French were obliged to retire from Langson.
Peaee between China and France (June 9thy 1886).
As the war lingered on, both countries became anxious for
peace, the support of the armies proving a heavy draft on their
resources, and on June 9th, 1885, a Treaty of Peace was signed by
Li Hung-chang on behalf of the Chinese, and by M. Patenotre on
behalf of the French. This Treaty virtually reaffirmed the former
Convention. The Chinese agreed to pay an indemnity of ten
million taels, and gave up all claim to Tong King, and the French
agreed to respect China's southern border.
This war revealed the good fighting power of the Chinese
soldier, although at the same time it showed a lack of able and
energetic commanders.
A SKBTOH OF CHINBSl! HISTORY. 181
Some Reforms after the War.
We have already referred to the coup d^Stat which resulted
in the downfall of Prince Kung. Although the father of a
reigning Emperor, according to Chinese custom, is not allowed
to hold any important office of state, yet in the case of Prince
Ch'un, the father of the Emperor Kuang Hsii, this usage was
disregarded, and he began to exercise a very powerful influence at
the Court.
The principal reforms following the War with France were as
follows : —
(1.) In 1886, Prince Ch*un made a tour of inspection of
• the defences at Tientsin and Port Arthur. As a result of his
cruise, a Board of Admiralty was established at Peking, and
arrangements were made with the British Government by which
Captain Lang of the British Navy was loaned to the Chinese
Government and placed in command of the reorganized Northern
Squadron. This position he held for some years, and finally
retired on account of disagreement with the Chinese officials in
regard to the relative rank of himself and the Chinese Admiral.
The Southern Squadron was still controlled by the local officials in
the South, and had its headquarters at Foochou.
(2.) The telegraph line had been constructed between
Tungchow and Yunnan, but in 1884, owing to the exigencies. of
the war with France, the line was extended to Peking, and a
telegraph station was established in the Capital.
(3.) The revenue of China was largely increased through
the efiForts of Sir Robert Hart, who organised a very efficient
Customs service throughout the Empire.
(4.) Mathematics was introduced into the curriculum of
the Imperial examination system, but, owing to the inability of the
Imperial Literary Chancellors to carry this reform into effect,
it proved of little practical value, and accomplished hardly any-
thing in the way of modifying the old stereotyped classical
examinations.
182 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
The Marriage of the Emperor and Retirement of the
Empress Dowager from the Resency.
The Emperor Kuang Hsii came of age in 1887, and in 1889
married Yeh Honala, the daughter of the brother of the Empress
Dowager. The marriage was celebrated with the usual state,
more than five million dollars being expended on the ceremonies.
At this time the Empress Dowager announced her intention of
retiring from the regency, and issued her farewell edict.
The Audience of 1891.
In March 1891, Kuang Hsii gave his first reception to the
foreign ministers, and it was declared that thereafter such
audiences should take place annually in the first month of the
Chinese year.
This audience was not entirely satisfactory to the foreign
Ministers, because it was held, as the one in 1873 had been, in the
Hall of Tribute Bearing Nations. There was a slight advance
on the previous occasion, however, inasmuch as the Ministers,
handed their credentials directly to a Prince, and were not obliged,
as formerly, to place them upon a table.
The Riots of 1891.
In 1891, serious riots occurred on the Yangtsze River, which
did much to dispel the vision of China's entering immediately on
the path of progress. The disturbances were partly due to
an attempt on the part of the conservative literati to stem the tide of
reform. The introduction of the study of mathematics into the
examination system was highly distasteful to them, and they were
desirous of the continuance of the old regime. Another cause of
the disturbance was the dissatisfaction of a society consisting of
the disbanded soldiers who had fought in the T'aiping rebellion.
It was known as the Koo-lau-hui, and was very anti-foreign
in spirit.
The Province of Hunan, which had the reputation of being
the most conservative in the whole of China, was the centre where
the trouble was fomented. A series of vile placards, accusing
A SEETOH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 183
European missionaries of every crime which disgraces humanity,
was circulated broadcast. The prime instigator of the movement
was a scholar named Chou Han. Rumors were spread concerning
the kidnapping and vivisection of Chinese children by missionaries,
and the ignorant people were incited to rioting and murder.
Disturbances broke out at Wuhu, Wusueh, Tanyang, Wusieh,
Chinkiang, Yangwu, and Kiangyin. Christian churches were
demolished, and missionary residences were wrecked and looted.
At Wusueh, on the Yangtsze River, two British subjects, one a
missionary and one an officer of the maritime customs, were
murdered.
The Tsung-li Yamen claimed that it was powerless to punish
the real culprits, and by way of settlement granted monetary
compensation for all the destruction that had been wrought.
Chou Han was allowed to remain at large, and was excused
for his misdeeds on the ground that he was a wild eccentric
creature who could not be held responsible for his actions.
One outcome of the trouble was the promulgation of an
Imperial edict, recognising that the doctrine of Christianity had
for its object the teaching of men to be virtuous, and enjoining
upon local authorities the duty of protecting the lives and property
of foreign merchants and missionaries.
IM A SKST<m OF CHIKB6B BISTORT.
CHAPTER XXIV.
The War with Japan (1894- 1895).
China's Seeming: Awakening:.
The Chinese Government had spent enormous sums of money
on the purchase of weapons and munitions of war, and an effort
was made to remodel completely the military and naval forces of
the Empire. Li Hung-chang was the chief promoter of these
reforms, and consequently gained the reputation of being a liberal
statesman.
Arsenals were built, and many foreigners were employed to
instruct the Chinese in all that pertains to the science of war.
A number of youths had been selected and sent to America to
be educated under the care of Dr. Yung Wing. This experiment
would probably have proved highly successful had it been carried
out to completion, but the Conservatives in Peking, dreading lest
the young men should become altogether too radical in their
views, opposed the scheme, and finally succeeded in having them
recalled before they had finished their education.
The Naval Ports in the Gulf of Pechihli, Port Arthur, Wei-
hai-wei, and Talien-wan were fortified at great expense, and
preparations were made to resist all foreign aggressions.
In consequence of all these changes the impression gained
ground that China was really awakening from her sleep of
centuries, and great hopes as to her future were entertained. Her
great sources of weakness, nepotism; and peculation on the part of
the oflacials, were overlooked, and the widespread corruption of
her Government was not perceived. These were soon brought to
light by the war with Japan.
A SKBTOH OF CHIKSSE HISTORY. 185
The Cause of the War.
In 1894, the National party of Corea, called the Tong-hak,
that is, *' followers of the Eastern Doctrine," rose up in revolt,
avowedly against the Roman Cathiolic converts, but really against
the reformed Government. A force sent against them by the
King met with a serious reverse, and consequently help was
asked from the Emperor of China. The Chinese Government
decided to send a force of 2,000 men to Corea for the purpose of
restoring order, and as soon as the force had been dispatched,
notice was sent to Japan. The Japanese had already received
information from their spies of this move on the part of China, and
taking as a pretext the fact that China had failed to consult with
the Japanese Government until after the expedition had left, sent
to Corea a corps of the Japanese army consisting of 10,000 men.
Thus the troops of the two countries were brought face to face in
a semi-hostile attitude. Ne;;otiations were, however, immediately
set on foot, and it was arranged that the forces of both countries
should be withdrawn. EacL side suspected the sincerity of the
other, and while negotiations were still in progress, the Kowshing,
a British steamer commanded by British officers, was employed
by the Chinese Government as a transport to convey Chinese
troops to reinforce the first expedition. While she was on her
way to Corea, escorted by two Chinese men-of-war, she was
sighted by some Japanese cruisers. A conflict followed, in
which one of the Chinese warships was disabled and beached,
and the other steamed off, leaving the Kowshing at the mercy of
the Japanese. The Japanese captain of the Naniwa signalled to
the captain of the Kowshing to make for a Japanese port, as a
prisoner of war. The Chinese soldiers on board mutinied and
refused to allow the foreign officers to obey this command. Next,
the Japanese commander ordered the captain and foreign officers
on board the Kowshing to leave the ship, but they were unable to
do this on account of the resistance of the Chinese soldiers, who
thought the presence of the foreigners insured their own safety.
186 A SKETCH OF CHINESB HISTORY.
The Japanese then hoisted the red flag and poured a broadside into
the transport. The scene which followed was frightful in the
extreme, and the ship went down, carrying with her most of
her passengers and crew.
This led to a declaration of war on both sides, and both
countries began to pour troops into Corea.
China's reason for going to war was that she claimed that
Corea was one of her feudatory states, and that 'she had the right
to interfere in the political affairs of her vassal, while Japan's
action was entirely unjustifiable.
Japan's reasons for going to war were as follows : —
(1.) Her resentment at the haughty way in which she had
always been treated by China, and her desire for revenge on
account of the attack on the Japanese Legation in 1894.
(2.) The assassination of Kim Ok Kuin, a Corean statesman,
who had taken refuge in Japan, after the outbreak in Corea, had
resided there for ten years, and had then been decoyed to
Shanghai and murdered by Corean emissaries, whom the Chinese
had taken no steps to punish.
(3.) The desire to obtain control of the government of Corea.
(4.) An earnest desire on the part of the Japanese
Government to divert attention from domestic affairs on account of
a civil revolution threatened by the military classes. She was
anxious to divert this restless military energy into another channel^
and so took the opportunity of allowing it to expend itself upon
China.
The Procuress of the War.
The first land battle of the war was fought near Asan, in the
South-west of the Corean Peninsula. A Chinese force under the
command of General Yeh occupied this town, but as soon as the
Japanese approached, General Yeh, leaving his rear guard to
defend the place, marched off with the bulk of his army to
Ping-yang, north of Seoul. After a brief skirmish, the Japanese
took the city, and having captured a large quantity of Chinese
A SKBTOH OF CHINESB HISTORY. 187
stores and munitions of war, then pursued General Yeh to
Ping-yang. The latter, on learning of their approach, abandoned
a strong position, and in company with General Wei retired to the
North of the Yalu River, leaving General Tso with a much
reduced force to meet the Japanese army. G^eral Tso fought
with bravery and desperation, and died at the head of his men,
over whose dead bodies the Japanese forced their way into the
city of Ping-yang.
In the meantime the Chinese Government had dispatched a
large force, consisting mainly of raw recruits, under the convoy of
the Pei-yang Squadron, to effect a landing at the Yalu River.
The Battle of Yalu.
The Japanese fleet hove in sight as the Chinese troops were
in the act of landing, and consequently the Chinese fleet under ih&
command of Admiral Ting was forced to come to an engagement,
and steamed out in the V shaped formation to meet the enemy*
In point of numbers the two fleets were evenly matched, there
being twelve ships on each side, but the Chinese had th-e
advantage of having some heavily armed battleships. In the
engagement which followed both sides fought with determination,,
but the Chinese were out-manoeuvred, and the fighting power of
their ships was greatly crippled by the lack of proper ammunition.
At the end of the day, five Chinese vessels had been sunk and the
rest were in full flight. The Japanese ships were, however, so
badly damaged that they were unable to give chase, and thus seven
of the Chinese ships reached Port Arthur in safety.
The Battle of Port Arthur.
On the land. Marshal Yamagata, in command of the Japanese
army, marched northward from Ping-yang and crossed the Yala
River, thus sweeping Corea clear of all Chinese troops. Meeting
with little opposition he proceeded to occupy Southern Manchuria.
Meanwhile another Japanese army, under the command of
General Oyama, landed in the neighborhood of Kinchou, thirty-
five miles to the North of Port Arthur. Talien-wan and Kinchou
188 A SKETCH OF 0HINB8B HISTOBT.
opened their gates to the invaders, and Oyama was thus placed in
a position to attack Fort Arthur from the land side. The
-character of the country rendered the enterprise a difficult one, but
the troops surmounted all obstacles and on the 21st of November
delivered their as«ault. The Chinese had lost all confidence in
their leaders, and after slight resistance deserted their batteries
■and fled.
The fall of Port Arthur was a crushing blow to the Chinese,
for the place had been deemed impregnable. The victory of the
Japanese was so easily won that it is generally supposed that there
must have been some treachery on the part of thosd in. command
of the Forts. At Port Arthur, the Japanese, infuriated by the
discovery of the mutilated remains of some of their comrades who
had been captured by Chinese soldiers, massacred in a most
barbarous manner the innocent inhabitants of the place.
First Overtures for Peace.
The series of disasters which the Chinese army had met with,
induced the Government to heed the advice of Li Hung-chang,
and make overtures to Japan for a cessation of hostilities. Two
futile missions were sent to Japan, one headed by Mr. Detring of
the Chinese Customs, and the other by an official named Chang.
As neither of these men possessed full plenipotentiary powers, the
Japanese refused to enter into negotiations with them, and
proceeded with the war.
The Battle of Wei-hai-wel.
The Japanese fleet prepared to attack Wei-hai-wei, China's
last stronghold. The Chinese fleet in the harbour was under the
command of Admiral Ting, who determined to defend the fortress
as long as possible. Unfortunately, the land forces were not
under his control, and so when he wished to dismantle the outlying
forts, fearing lest they might fall into the hands of the Japanese
and their guns be turned upon the main fortress, the soldiers
refused to obey his commands. As a consequence of this refusal
on the part of the military forces to act in accordance with his
A SKETCH OF GHIKB8B HISTORY. 189"
wishes, his fears were shortly after reab'zed. The Japanese
captured the outer forts and then turned the guns upon the fleet
and the citadel. After a desperate resistance Admiral Ting was
finally forced to make arrangements with Admiral Ito of the
Japanese fleet to surrender the town and his ships. After agreeing
to the necessary conditions and stipulating for the safety of his
men, Ting in despair committed suicide, and his example was
followed by the second and third officers in command. His death
is greatly to be regretted, as he was one of the few leaders on the-
Chinese side who acted in a brave manner during this disastroni^
war.
Tho Treaty i>f Shlmonoseki.
The fall of Wei-hai-wei convinced the Chinese Government
that they must at once make peace with the enemy, and Li Hung-
chang was sent to Japan as plenipotentiary. With the exception
of an attack on Li by a would-be Japanese assassin, who woanded
him under the eye, the discussions proceeded favorably, and on
the 17th of April, 1895, the Treaty of Shimoneseki* was signed,,
and on the 9th of May the ratifications were exchanged at Chefoo.
The principal articles of this important treaty were as follows : —
(1.) — The independence of Corea was declared. ,
(2.) — The Liao-tung Peninsula (including Port Arthur),
Formosa, and the Pescadores Islands were ceded to Japan.
(3.)— An indemnity of Tls 200,000,000 was to be paid ta
Japan within seven years.
(4.)--Ching-chou and Sha-shih, in Hupeh, Chung-king in
Ssuch'uan, Soochou in Kiangsu, and Hangchou in Chehkiang were^
to be opened as Treaty Ports to foreign trade.
In consequence of the protest of Russia, Germany, and
France, Japan was forced to waive her claims to the Liao-tung
Peninsula, and to accept in exchange a payment of thirty millions
of taels. A supplementary treaty to this eflfect was signed at
Peking on November 7th, 1895.
190 A SKBTCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY.
In return for their services to China in mitigating the terms
of the treaty, Russia, France, and Germany all demanded recom-
pense. Russia obtained the right to carry her Siberian railway
through Manchuria to Vladivostock, with branch lines to Moukden
and Port Arthur. The French obtained the promise that the
•Chinese would meet the Tong King railway on the Chinese
frontier, and continue it as far as Nanning-fu, in the Province
of Kuangsi. Germany obtained certain mining and railway
privileges in the Province of Shantung.
Riesult of the War.
The result of the China-Japan war was most disastrous for
China. It revealed her weakness to the rest of the world. Hence-
forth foreign powers relied not as formerly on diplomacy for
obtaining concessions from China, but resorted to threats and to
the display of force, feeling sure that China was not in a position
to make any opposition, and from this time began a constant
succession of encroachments upon Chinese territory by some of the
European Powers.
A SKETCH OF CHINBSB HISTORY. 191
CHAPTER XXV.
Recent Events in China.
Unresisted Foreign A^^s^ression.
The collapse of China in the war with Japan, as we have said,
led to most serious consequences. China was in no position to
resist any demands made upon her, if they were backed up with a
suflScient show of force, and accordingly acts of aggression became
the order of the day.
The seizure of Kiao-chao by Germany.
On the first of November, 1897, two German missionaries of
the Roman Catholic Church, stationed in the southern part of the
Province of Shantung, were murdered by a band of armed robbers.
The Governor of the Province, Li Ping-heng, a man strongly
anti-foreign in spirit, made little attempt to bring the culprits to
justice. Germany was swift in her demands for reparation, and
men-of-war were at once dispatched to Kiao-chao Bay, which
drove the Chinese garrisons out of their forts. A small body of
German soldiers was landed on the coast with orders to remain
there until a settlement satisfactory to Germany had been obtained.
The German Government made heavy demands upon China, which
the latter was unable to resist. An indemnity was to be paid,
Li Ping-hSng was to be cashiered and dismissed from public
service, Germany was to obtain mining and railway privileges in
Shantung, and was to be allowed to occupy Kiao-chao on a lease
of ninety-nine years.
The Lease of Port Arthur to Russia.
Russia looked upon this move of Germany with an un-
favorable eye, inasmuch as it brought another European Power
into the sphere of influence in Northern China which she coveted
192 A SKETCH OF CHIKB5S HISTORY.
for herself. The policy of Russia all along had been to gain a
preponderating influence in Manchuria and North China, and as a
step to this end she was anxious to obtain an ice-free sea port,
open to her ships all the year round.
Owing to the agreement between Russia and England that
there was to be no alienation of Corean territory, Russia turned
her eyes on Port Arthur and Talien-wan, and demanded a lease of
them from China on the same terms as those under which
Germany held Kiao-chao. To these demands China was compelled
reluctantly to yield, and Port Arthur, one of the strongest naval
bases in the world, passed out of the control of the Empire. By
its possession Russia secured a desirable vantage ground for future
operations in Northern China.
The Lease of Wel-hal-wel to Great Britain.
Great Britain was unwilling to stand by, an idle spectator,
and witness Germany and Russia increasing their hold on China,
and consequently she put in a claim for the lease of Wei-hai-wei^
as soon as it was evacuated by Japan. China, in return for
assistance rendered by Great Britain in enabling her to pay off
the indemnity owinof to Japan, granted a twenty-five years' lease
of Wei-hai-wei, and in 1899 also consented to the extension of
British territory on the hinter-land of Hongkong.
The Result of these Acts of AggreMmlotim
One of the principal results of these acts of foreign aggression
was to embitter the Chinese people against foreign nations more
than ever. After the cession of Kiao-chao, frequent disturbances
occurred in Shantung, and in Manchuria there was much friction
between the natives and the Russians. When the British
attempted to delimit the boundaries of Wei-hai*wei, a sliglit
engagement took place between the Chinese soldiers and some
native troops which had been drilled by the British, and it was
only after the former had been defeated that the Chinese allowed
the original agreement to be carried out.
A SKBTCH OF CHINESE HISTORY. 19S
The people of China began to realize that the integrity of
their country was threatened, and the fear of the partition of
China roused them as nothing had ever done before, and prepared
the way for a serious uprising.
The Demand of Italy tor San men Bay.
In the spring of 1899, Italy demanded the cession of Sanmen
Bay in the province of Chekiang, but the Chinese Government,
despite her recent acquiescence with such demands, offered a
strenuous resistance. This change of front was probably due to
the fact that the Empress Dowager had once more assumed the
control of affairs, and was determined to pursue a strong policy in
regard to further acts of spoliation. She saw very clearly that
something must be done to stem the tide, or the days of China as
an integral and independent power were numbered.
The Reforms of the Emperor Kuan^ Hsu.
In the spring of 1898, when the ship of state seemed slowly
but surely drifting towards destruction, a reform movement began
to make itself felt in the Empire. The Emperor Kuang Hsii came
under the influence of a band of young oflacials and scholars full of
schemes for the reformation of the Empire. Their leader was
Kang Yu-wei, a native of Canton, a man of undoubted ability and
strong personality. The Emperor was most eager to carry out the
reforms suggested by these ardent and radical patriots, and began
to issue a series of reform edicts. The system of Imperial Literary
examinations was to be completely changed, and among the
subjects required of those competing for degrees were to be "a
knowledge of ancient and modern history, and information in
regard to the present-day state of affairs, with special reference ta
the governments and institutions of the countries of the five great
continents, and a knowledge of the arts and sciences thereof,"
In this way a body of officials competent to understand and
cope with the questions of the day was to be raised up, who in
course of time would supplant those who were conservative and
ignorant.
14
194 A 8KBTCH OF CHINBSB BISTORT.
Among the other reforms proposed were the following : —
(I.) — There was to be a complete reorganisation of the
Government — new Boards being established, and those that were
useless being abolished.
(2.) — Colleges and Technical Schools for the advancement of
scientific knowledge after the most approved method of Western
nations were to be opened.
(8.) — ^The right to memorialize the throne directly was to be
conferred upon all officials throughout the Empire, without respect
to rank.
Tho Coup d'otat of the Empress Dowas^er.
The Empress Dowager and the conservative officials of Peking
regarded these innovations with consternation, and determined that
they should be frustrated. The Empress Dowager was all the
more impelled to take this step inasmuch as there was a plot on
foot to remove her to a place of confinement, where she would be
powerless to hinder the new regime. Gathering about her in the
capital a strong force of soldiers, she suddenly seized the persoa
of the Emperor, and made him sign his own sentence of retire-
ment, in which he stated that he was compelled to hand over
the reins of government to his aunt on account of ill-health ;
she then assumed the regency herself. This was on the 22ud of
September 1898«
As soon as she had gathered the reins of government into her
own hands^ she instituted a ruthless crusade against all reformers.
All connected in any way with the new movement were seized, and
either banished or decapitated* Kang Tu-wei made hia escape to
Shanghai, and thence fled from the country.
The Empress Dowager surrounded herself with Manohn
officials of the most conservative type, and on September 2€di
promulgated a decree abolishing in toto the reforms that hsd
been inaogocated by tiie Empeior. This deares purported to oome
from the Emperor himself.
A SKBTOH 07 CHIKESB HISTOKT. 185
Thua the great reform movement was strangled in its cradle. -
The Empress Dowager breathed defiance to her foreign adver-
saries and resolved to do all she could to thwart further acts of
aggression. In secrej; she plotted for the driving out of foreigners
from Chinese territory.
In one of the decrees issued by her occurred the significant
words: '^ Let no one think of makiiig peace, but let each strive to
preserve from destruction and spoliation by the ruthless hand of
the invader his ancestral home and graves."
Fearing lest the Emperor Kuang Hsu might remain a rallying
centre around which the reform element in the country wop Id
gather, on January 31st, 1900, China New Year Day, the Empress
Dowager compelled him to announce that he had abdicated,
and that the son of Prince Tuan, a child named Pu Chiin, was to
succeed to the Dragon Throne. This proposed scheme of the
Empress Dowager called forth a strong protest from all interested
in the reform of the Empire, as it was clearly seen that it was
intended to place a child upon the throne so that the anti-reform
policy of the Empress Dowager might be perpetuated indefinitely.
A telegram was sent from Shanghai, signed by the Manager of
the Imperial Chinese Telegraphs, King Lien-shan, and 1,230
other signatories, imploring the Emperor not to abdicate. The
representatives of the Western Powers also took up an attitude
of opposition towards this proposed change in the rule of the
Ebopire.
The Empress Dowager was highly incensed at the receipt of
the telegram, and was made more furious than ever against the
rciformerg. Orders were issued for the arrest of King Lien-shan,
who was forced lo flee from Shanghai to Macao. Upon his
arrival tbere^ at the request of the Chinese Government he was
arrested by the Portuguese authorities and thrown into prison,
where be remained uutil after the Boxer uprising.
Other refarmers vere relentlessly hunted down, aqd a if0ign of
terror was instituted. The violent opposition displajad to th» plan
196 A SKETCH OF CHIKESS HISTOBY.
of forcing the Emperor to abdicate, compelled the Empress
Dowager to alter her plan so far that Pu Chiin was declared to be
the heir-apparent, instead of being proclaimed Emperor, and
Kuang Hsii instead of being made way with, as had probably
been the original intention, was kept in close captivity.
The Uprising of the Boxers.
u^he "I Ho Chuan,' or the "Righteous Harmony Fists,'^
familiarly called the "Boxers," were members of a secret society
which originated in the Province of Shantung. Their original
purpose was probably to drive out the Manchus and to restore a
Chinese Dynasty. They looked upon all the misery of their
country as due to the misrule of the Manchus and their yielding
to the demands of the foreigners. They were strongly anti-foreign
in spirit, and so afterwards lent themselves as a tool to the hands^
of the Empress Dowager to assist her in carrying out her schemes
for the expulsion of the foreigners.
They began their anti-foreign crusade in the autumn of
1899. Recruits were enlisted and drilled from all over the
Province of Shantung. Their method of warfare was peculiar.
They resorted to hypnotic arts, and believed that by charms and
incantations they could render their bodies invulnerable. They
armed themselves for the most part with swords and spears,
only a few possessing foreign weapons. On account of their belief
in their invulnerability they were ready to advance against their
enemy with the utmost intrepidity, and to fight with the spirit of
fanatics.
They began their operations by burning and looting the^
houses of native Christians throughout the Province of Shantungy
and emboldened by the little opposition they met with at the
hands of the Chinese officials, they next proceeded to attack the
Christians themselves. Their enmity to the native Christians,
Roman Catholic and /Protestant alike, was largely due to the fact
that they regarded them as having gone over to the side of the
hated foreigner.
A SKBTCH OF OHINKSK HISTORY. 197
The Chinese Government was most inert in its attempts to
put down the uprising, and undoubtedly the Empress Dowager
and many of the conservative officials secretly sympathised with
these so-called patriots, and looked upon them as a powerful ally
in furthering the secret plot for driving out foreigners from
the Empire.
Yii Hsien, who had succeeded Li Ping-hSng as Governor of
Shantung, was wholly indiflFerent to the petitions of missionaries
and Christian converts for the protection of their lives and
property. The first foreigner to be murdered by the Boxers was
the Rev. S. M. Brooks, a missionary of the Church of England,
but even after that act of violence no strenuous efforts were put
forth by the Government for the suppression of the disorder,
which was rapidly assuming formidable dimensions.
The Trouble extends into the Province of Chihii.
Though some attempts were made by the Chinese army to
resist the ravages of the Boxers, yet they seem to have been but
half-hearted ones. It was believed by those who were sent to
attack them that these rebels actually possessed magic powers, and
for this reason many of the officials were afraid to resort to strong
measures for the suppression of the uprising. It was also
understood that the Court did not wish too much violence to be
used, but only desired to hold the Boxers in check until the plans
of the Empress Dowager had matured.
In a short time the Province of Chihii was in a state of
disorder./ P^ao-tihg-fu was burnt, Tientsin was in danger, and
Peking was threatened. At the approach of the Boxers, the
Legations of the Western Powers at Peking had wired to Tientsin
for guards to secure their safety, and 450 men from the foreign
war-ships had been sent forward. In a few days after the
arrival of the guards for the Legations, Peking was cut off from
communication with the outside world, the Boxers having
destroyed the telegraph and railway lines.
198 A SKBTOH OF GHIKSSB HISTORY.
Admiral Seymour's Relief Expedition.
The position of the foreign ministers in Peking became so
critical that Admiral Seymour, of the British fleet, and Captain
McCalla, of the American fleet, finally determined to undertake an
expedition for their relief. On June 10th, a force consisting of
about 1,000 men left Tientsin by rail for Peking. It was soon
discovered that for miles the rails had been torn up, and the
attempt was made to repair them as the expedition advanced.
Owing to the fact that the foreign force was constantly exposed
to fierce attacks from the Boxers, this efi^ort proved futile and had
to be abandoned. The expedition fought its way to Langfang,
and then, owing to the scarcity of provisions, and to the fact that
at every step they were resisted by the enemy, it was determined
to give up the attempt and to begin a retreat. On the way back
the expedition suffered great hardships, and came near being
entirely annihilated. A remnant managed to fortify themselves in
an arsenal near Tientsin, and were finally rescued by a party sent
out from Tientsin in search of them.
The Attack by the Foreign Fleet on the Taku Forts.
In the meantime the allied squadron of foreign vessels,
which had been lying off Taku, prepared to begin hostilities. The
commanders bejieved that they could secure the safety of Tientsin
and the Legations in Peking only by taking the Taku Forts. On
June 16th an ultimatum was sent to the Commander of the Forts
by all the Foreign Admirals, with the exception of the American,
calling upon him to surrender the forts and to order their
evacuation. The Chinese refused to obey this summons, and
consequently an engagement took place on June 17th, the forts
opening fire on the fleet which had moved into the harbour.
After a severe bombardment by the foreign fleet the forts were
finally taken. This action on the part of the allied fleet
precipitated the trouble, roused the Chinese Government into
open hostility against foreigners, and led to the declaration of
war against the invaders. An ultimatum was sent by the
A SKBTCH OF OHINESB HISTORY. 199
Tsung-li Yam^n to the foreign ministers ordering them to quit
the Capital within twenty-four hours.
The Attack on Tientsin.
The foreign settlement at Tientsin was repeatedly attacked by
the Boxers in conjunction with the Imperial forces, and came very
near being captured. All the foreign women and children were
compelled to take refuge in Gordon Hall) the City Hall which
had been erected by the British in commemoration of Queen
Victoria's Jubilee. At last the besieged foreigners managed to
send news to Taku of the straits to which they were reduced, and
an expedition was sent to their relief, with the result that the siege
of Tientsin was raised.
Ttie iMassacre of Ctiristians.
The Boxers in their anti-foreign crusade singled out as
their special victims missionaries, both Protestant and Romanist,
and their converts ; throughout Shantung, Chihli, and Shansi
the churches, [schools, and residences of the missionaries were
burnt and looted, and missionaries and their converts were
murdered.
A secret edict issued by the Empress Dowager, calling for
the extermination of all foreigners, incited some of the ultra-
conservative officials to take part in these assaults upon the
missionaries. On June 30th, a massacre occurred at P'ao-ting-fu
in Chihli, and on July 9th, forty-five missionaries were put
to death at T'ai-yuan-fu in Shansi by order of the Governor
Yu Hsien, who had been transferred to that Province after the
foreign ministers had obtained his dismissal from Shantung.
In Manchuria also, a great persecution of the Christian Church
broke out, and missionaries were forced to flee for their lives.
Including both Protestants and Romanists, over 200 missionaries
were put to death, and the Christian converts who were massacred
probably numbered several thousands.
200 A BKBTOH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
The Attack by the Allied Foreign Forces on the City
of Tientsin.
As soon as the gravity of the situation was realized the
foreign powers began to pour their troops into China, and in a
short time a sufficient force had assembled in the foreign concession
at Tientsin to render it possible to make an attack on the native
city. The foreign forces deemed that this step was necessary
prior to an advance on Peking. The native city had been
strongly fortified, and was defended by a large Chinese army. The
first attack of the allied force failed, but in the second assault,
owing to the bravery of the Japanese troops, one of the gates was
successfully stormed, and thus an entrance into the city was
secured. The battle was a severe one, attended with heavy loss
of life /on both sides, but finally the Chinese were compelled to
retreat. The city was then given up to loot, and for a time the
greatest disorder prevailed.
The Slese of the Lefi^atlons In Pekinfi^.
In the meantime affairs in the capital were in a most critical
state. The Boxers burned and looted at will, and obtained
complete control of the city. On June 11th, Mr. Sugiyama,
Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, was killed in a barbarous
manner. On June 20th, Baron von Kettler, the German
Ambassador while making his way to the Tsung-li Yamen, was
shot dead in the streets.
After the attack on the Taku Forts the ultimatum already
referred to had been issued for the withdrawal of the foreign
ministers within twenty-four hours. The Ambassadors refused
to obey this order, as they feared that they would be instantly
massacred should they attempt to pass through the streets of
the city. Upon their refusal, the Imperialist troops immediately
joined with the Boxers in an attack on the Legations,
and all the foreign residents in Peking were forced to retreat
to the British, American, and adjoining Legations for safety.
A constant bombardment was kept up against these Legations, y
ii
A SKETCH OF CHINESB HISTORY. 201
and the foreigners were in imminent danger of being annihilated.
There seemed, however, to be divided counsel among those
directing the attack, and this probably alone saved the entire
foreign community from extermination. Many of the Chinese
officials foresaw what would be the consequence of such an outrage.
Others perhaps waited until they could see what the fate of
Tientsin was to be. If the Foreign Settlement of Tientsin had
been taken by the Boxers, then probably /the full fury of the mobs
in Peking would have been turned against the Legations, and
even those officials who still wished to avert the massacre would
have been unable to do so.
In the desire to take the Legations by storm, numerous
buildings just outside the Legation walls were successively fired
for the purpose of burning out the foreigners. In this way the
celebrated Hanlin Academy, with its valuable collection of Chinese
books, was destroyed. The American marines, by securing a portion
of the wall around the Tartar city on one side of the American
Legation, rendered the position of the besieged more tenable, and
the holding of this was a great advantage throughout the siege.
The Relief of Peking:.
In the beginning of August the allied force, consisting of
15,000 men, began the advance on Peking. It was composed
principally of British, Japanese, Russian, American, and German
troops.
The British Commander was General Gaselee, and the
American, General ChaflFee. On the way some opposition was
encountered at Peitsang and Yang-tsun. The expedition finally
reached Peking on August 14th, and the city was taken on the
following day. The Emperor and Empress Dowager fled from the
city as the Allies entered, and, after suffering much hardship on the
way, finally established the Court at Si-an-fu in Shansi.
Thus ended one of the most remarkable sieges in history,
exceeding in importance the famous sieges of Lucknow and
202 A SKETCH or OHINBSB HISTORY.
Cawnpore. On the part of the Chinese the greatest political
blander imaginable ba(vbeen committed, and China had rendered
herself liable to chastisement at the hands of the whole Western
world.
The Viceroys of the Southern Provinces.
While in the North this desperate attempt was being made to
throw off the yoke of foreign aggression, a large part of China
remained peaceful and took no part in the outbreak. This was
effected by the Viceroys of the Eastern and Southern Provinces
refusing to obey the secret edict calling upon them to rise and
drive out the foreigners. They realized the rashness of such dn
attempt, knowing that China was not strong enough to throw
down the gauntlet to all the Western Powers. An agreement was
made by Chang Chih-tung, tlje Viceroy of Honan and Hupeh,
Liu K'un-i, the Viceroy of Kiangsu, Anhui, and Kiangsi,
Yiian Shih-kai, the Governor of Shantung, and Li Hung-chang,
the Viceroy of Kuangtung and Kuangsi, with the foreign consuls
of the different Western Powers, by which the former promised
to preserve peace in their jurisdictions provided that the foreign
troops confined their military operations to the North. This agree-
ment was faithfully carried out on both sides, and was the means
of saving China from universal anarchy. It showed very clearly
that the history of the past had not been entirely without effect,
and that some of the most influential officials realized that foreign
intercourse need not necessarily harm their country, but might be
the means of leading her to internal reform.
The Peaoe Nefi^otiations.
After the taking of Peking it was occupied by the foreign
forces. The Capital and the adjoining country were completely
under the control/of the Allied Army. Peking was looted in a
way that threw much discredit upon Western civilization. The
Russian and French troops treated the people with cruelty and
barbarity, and the German forces, inspired with thft spirit of
A SKBTCH or CHINESE HISTORY. 203
revenge for the murder of their Ambassador, 'went about the
country dispersing bands of Boxers, and working much needless
devastation. Count von Waldersee was sent out from Germany,
and was recognized as Comraander-in-Chief by all the forces
except the American.
At first there were no Chinese Officials with whom terms
of peace could be discussed, but after a time Li Hung-chang
came up from the South, having received the appointment of
Viceroy of Chihli, and he and Prince Ching were appointed
Plenipotentiaries for negotiating terms of peace.
After loner conferences the following peace protocol was
agreed to by the Chinese Peace Plenipotentiaries and the Ministers
or Peace Commissioners of the Western Powers.
(1.) — China was to erect a monument to the memory of Baron
von Kettler on the site where he was murdered, and to send an
Imperial Prince to Germany to convey the Emperor's apology for
the sad occurrence.
(2.) — China was to inflict the death penalty upon eleven
princes and officials named by the foreign negotiators.
(3.) — The provincial examinations were to be suspended for
five years in the places where the outrages had occurred.
(4.) — In future all officials who failed to prevent antiVoreign
outrages within their jurisdictions were to be dismissed and
punished.
(5.) — An indemnity was to be paid to the states, corporations,
and individuals who had suffered from the disturbance, and the
Chinese Government was to be allowed to raise the tariff on
imports to an effective five per cent.
(6.) — The T^ung-li Yaraen was to be abolished, and its
functions vested in a ministry of Foreign Affairs (Wai-wu-pu)
which was to take rank before the other six ministries of state.
^7,) — Rational intercourse was to be permitted with the
Emperor as in other civilized nations.
204 A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORY.
(8.) — The forts at Taku and the other forts on the coast of
Chihli were to be razed to the ground, and the importation of
arms and war material was to be prohibited.
(9.) — Permanent guards of foreign soldiers were to be
maintained in the Capital, and also at various stations in order to
keep open the communication between Peking and the sea.
(10.) — For two years, Imperial proclamations were to be
posted throughout the Empire ordering the suppression of.
Boxers.
(11.) — The indemnity was to include compensation for
Chinese who suflfered for being in the employ of the foreigners, but
no compensation money was to be given to the native Christians.
These terms were severe, but they were far better than many
of the Chinese had expected, inasmuch as the integrity of China
was preserved, and no further demands were made for portions of
her territory.
Most of the terms of the peace protocol have already been
carried out. Prince Chun has accomplished a mission of apology
to Germany, and the amount of the indemnity to be paid has been
settled. China has to pay the large sum of 450 million taels, to
be paid ofiF in annual installments extending over 40 yearsT^
The Policy of Russia.
Although the general desire of the Western Powers was to
resist the possible dismemberment of the Chinese Empire, and
although Great Britain and Germany entered into an alliance to
preserve the integrity of China, yet the actions of Russia in the
Korth have been most ominous and have indicated that she
cherishes designs different from those of the other Powers.
At Blagovestchensk, a terrible slaughter of Chinese took place.
It was precipitated by the General of the Chinese forces attacking
some Cossack troops, and was an act of fearful vengeance on the
part of the Russians. Men, women, and children were driven into
the River Amour and drowned, and thousands were mercilessly
slaughtered.
A SKETCH OF CHINESE HISTORT. 205^
Taking as a pretext the disturbed condition of Manchuria,
the Hussian troops have occupied the country, and still remain
there. To the remonstrances of the other Western Powers, Russia
has replied that she has no intention of annexing Manchuria, but
only intends keeping her forces there until order has been restored;
that after things have returned to their normal condition she
will retire, leaving only sufficient troops in the country to
guard her railways. The terms of the proposed Manchurian
Convention which have lately been made public, show very clearly,
however, that the intention of Russia is to secure a paramount
influence in Manchuria, and if the terms proposed by her are
accepted by China, it means the virtual annexation of Manchuria
by Russia. This would only be the completion of a policy Russia
has all along steadily pursued, the policy of gaining a strong
foothold on the Pacific with sea-ports open all the year round,
and of obtaining a commanding influence in the affairs of Eastern
Asia, The recently formed Anglo-Japanese alliance may have as
one of its effects the upsettino; of the plans of Russia in regard to
Manchuria.
The Period of Reoonstruction.
We must close our history at the present period of
reconstruction. The terms of the protocol have been agreed to,
and the foreign forces have been withdrawn. The Emperor and
Empress Dowager have returned to Peking and the government
is once more established in the Capital. The Commercial
Treaties with Western Nations are being revised. Edicts for
the reform of the government examination system, and for the
establishment of schools and colleges for teaching Western
learning, have been issued, and there are many signs of change
and of the adoption of a more enlightened policy. It is no
part of the historian's duty to prophesy the future, and so we may
consider our task finished.
We have attempted to give a brief review of the past, tracing
the slow development of the Empire, its consolidation, its struggles
206 A tlKBTOH OF CHDTBSB HISTORY.
with the Tartars, its final conquest by the Manchus, and the eflPects
of the new force that comes into Chinese history with the beginning
of intercourse with Western Nations. We have shown how the
West has wrung by force from China those privileges of trade and
international comity which she was not willing to yield of her own
accord. We have described the recent outbreak which was the
culmination of the attempts on the part of the conservative
element in China to resist the inroads of the West.
There are some of a pessimistic turn of mind who believe that
we are on the eve of the break-up of t^e old Empire, that China
will continue to stand opposed to reform, and that her internal
disorder will finally lead to the parlitionment of the Empire
among the Western Powers, Others df more sanguine temperar-
rneut believe that we have reached at last the turn of the tide, that
the spirit of reform is abroad in the Empire, and that China is
about to enter on a new era in her history and to take her place
as Japan has done among the progressive nations of the world.
In fact, there seems to be a growing understanding between China
and Japan which may lead to her placing herself under the
tutelege of her powerful neighbor, and so may in time bring abont
an alliance of the Yellow race which may produce startling effects
iu the future history of the world.
We close our history with the expression of the sincere hope
that the last upheaval may prove to be the birth throes of a new,
enlightened, and progressive Chinese Empire.
APPENDIX
The Chinese Dynastlee.
Name of Dynasty.
O g
If
Began.
Ended.
Q
II
The Age of the Five Rulers
9
B.C. 2862
B.C. 2205
647
Hsia Dynasty
17
2206
1766
439
Shang or Yin
28
1766
1122
644
Ohou
34
1122
266
867
Ts*in
5
265
206
49
Han, or Former Han, or Western Han ...
14
206
A.D. 25
231
Later Man, or Eastern Han
12
A.D. 25
221
196
The Three Kingdoms
11
221
265
44
Western Tsin
4
265
317
52
Rastern T^n
11
317
420
103
Division into North and South
58
420
589
169
Sung ...
9
420
479
69
Ch'l
7
479
502
23
Liang
6
502
557
65
Ch*en
657
589
32
Northern Wei
15
886
535
149
Western Wei
3
585
557
22
Eastern Wei
I
584
650
16
Northern Chi
7
650
589
39
Northern Chou
5
557
589
32
Sui
4
589
618
29
T'ang
22
618
907
289
The Five Dynasties
13
907
960
63
Later Liang
2
907
923
16
Later T'ang
4
923
986
13
Later Tsin
2
936
947
U
Later Han
2
947
951
4
Later Obon
3
951
960
9
Liao
9
907
1125
218
Western Liao
5
1125
1168
43
Kin ^
10
1116
1260
145
Sung
9
960
1127
167
Southern Sung
9
1127
1280
153
Yiian
9
1280
1868
88
Ming
17
1868
1644
276
TsHng
9
1644
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